CHEMOSYNTHESIS

<div style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; margin-left: 1.5in; margin-right: 0in; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in;"><h1 style="border: none; padding: 0in; text-align: left; text-indent: 0.5in;"><strong><span style="font-size: 20pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 156%;"><span style="color: red;">CHEMOSYNTHESIS</span></span></strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">          </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><o:p style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> </o:p></h1></div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;">Chemosynthesis is the synthesis of organic compounds by bacteria or other living organisms using energy derived from reactions involving inorganic chemicals, typically in the absence of sunlight.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt;">Chemosynthesis can be defined as the biological production of organic compounds from C-1 compounds and nutrients, using the energy generated by the oxidation of inorganic (e.g., hydrogen gas, hydrogen sulfide, ammonium) or C-1 organic (e.g., methane, methanol) molecules.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><br /></p><p style="margin-bottom: 14.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 14.45pt; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><b><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="background: rgb(249, 247, 244); font-size: 18pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: Georgia; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">PROCESS OF CHEMOSYNTHESIS</span></b><b><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="background: rgb(249, 247, 244); font-size: 18pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: Georgia; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p style="line-height: 14.45pt; margin-bottom: 14.5pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background: rgb(249, 247, 244); color: #333333; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Georgia;">Chemosynthesis is the process by which food (glucose) is made by bacteria using chemicals as the energy source, rather than sunlight. Chemosynthesis occurs around hydrothermal vents and methane seeps in the deep sea where sunlight is absent. During chemosynthesis, bacteria living on the sea floor or within animals use energy stored in the chemical bonds of hydrogen sulfide and methane to make glucose from water and carbon dioxide (dissolved in sea water). Pure sulfur and sulfur compounds are produced as by-products.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;">Chemosynthesis is a biosynthesis performed by living organisms. It is through this process that a more complex chemical compound is produced. It often does so by combining simpler chemical entities or precursors. Examples of chemical synthesis, in particular, include </span><span style="background: white; color: #3a76c3; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/organic-synthesis"><span style="color: #3a76c3;">organic synthesis</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"> and dehydration synthesis. </span><u><span style="background: white; color: #7cbb48; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/chemoautotroph"><span style="color: #7cbb48;">Chemoautotroph</span></a></span></u><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;">s, for instance, are organisms that perform chemosynthesis. They include certain groups of </span><span style="background: white; color: #3a76c3; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/bacteria"><span style="color: #3a76c3;">bacteria</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"> such as sulfur-oxidizing gamma proteobacteria, epsilon proteobacteria, and neutrophilic iron-oxidizing bacteria, and certain </span><span style="background: white; color: #3a76c3; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/archaea"><span style="color: #3a76c3;">archaea</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"> such as methanogenic archaea. Certain </span><span style="background: white; color: #3a76c3; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/eukaryote"><span style="color: #3a76c3;">eukaryote</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;">s form </span><span style="background: white; color: #3a76c3; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/symbiosis"><span style="color: #3a76c3;">symbiosis</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"> with </span><span style="background: white; color: #3a76c3; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/bacteria"><span style="color: #3a76c3;">bacteria</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"> that can fix </span><span style="background: white; color: #3a76c3; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/carbon-dioxide"><span style="color: #3a76c3;">carbon dioxide</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"> for them. For instance, the giant tube worms have bacteria in their trophosome that can produce </span><span style="background: white; color: #3a76c3; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/sugar"><span style="color: #3a76c3;">sugar</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;">s and </span><span style="background: white; color: #3a76c3; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/amino-acid"><span style="color: #3a76c3;">amino acid</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;">s from </span><span style="background: white; color: #3a76c3; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/carbon-dioxide"><span style="color: #3a76c3;">carbon dioxide</span></a></span><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"> with hydrogen sulfide as the energy source. This form of chemosynthesis results in the formation of carbohydrate as well as solid globules of sulfur.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><br /></span></div><span style="background: white; color: #212529; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><b style="text-align: left;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #2b00fe; font-size: 18pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;">CHEMOSYNTHESIS VS PHOTOSYNTHESIS</span></b></span><p></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;">Ecosystems depend upon the ability of some organisms to convert inorganic compounds into food that other organisms can then exploit (or eat!). The majority of life on the planet is based on a food chain which revolves around sunlight, as plants make food via photosynthesis. However, in environments where there is no sunlight and thus no plants, organisms instead rely on primary production through a process called chemosynthesis, which runs on chemical energy. Together, photosynthesis and chemosynthesis fuel all life on Earth.</span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><strong><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;">Photosynthesis</span></strong><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"> occurs in plants and some bacteria, wherever there is sufficient sunlight – on land, in shallow water, even inside and below clear ice. All photosynthetic organisms use solar energy to turn carbon dioxide and water into sugar (food) and oxygen: 6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2.</span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><strong><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;">Chemosynthesis</span></strong><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif;"> occurs in bacteria and other organisms and involves the use of energy released by inorganic chemical reactions to produce food. All chemosynthetic organisms use energy released by chemical reactions to make a sugar, but different species use different pathways. For example, at hydrothermal vents, vent bacteria oxidize hydrogen sulfide, add carbon dioxide and oxygen, and produce sugar, sulfur, and water: CO2 + 4H2S + O2 -> CH20 + 4S + 3H2O. Other bacteria make organic matter by reducing sulfide or oxidizing methane.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="background: white; color: #2b00fe; font-size: 18pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: sans-serif; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">EXAMPLES OF CHEMOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA</span></b></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Chemosynthetic bacteria include a group of</span><u><span style="background: white; color: #226dab; font-size: 14pt;"><a href="https://www.microscopemaster.com/autotrophs.html"><span style="color: #226dab;"> autotrophic</span></a></span></u><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;"> bacteria that use chemical energy to produce their own food. Like </span><u><span style="background: white; color: #226dab; font-size: 14pt;"><a href="https://www.microscopemaster.com/photosynthetic-bacteria.html"><span style="color: #226dab;">photosynthetic bacteria</span></a></span></u><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">, chemosynthetic bacteria need a carbon source (e.g. carbon dioxide) as well as an energy source in order to manufacture their own food.</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">For the most part, these bacteria are aerobic and therefore rely on oxygen to complete this process successfully. However, some species (e.g. Sulfuricurvum kujiense) have been associated with anaerobic chemosynthesis.</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Because of their ability to manufacture their own food using chemical energy, these organisms are able to survive in a variety of habitats/environments including harsh environments with extreme conditions as free-living organisms or in association with other organisms through symbiosis with other organisms. </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Venenivibrio stagnispumantis</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Beggiatoa</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">T. neapolitanus</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">T. novellus</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">ferrooxidans</span></li></ul> <h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 7.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 21.0pt; margin: 21pt 0in 7.9pt; mso-line-height-alt: .8pt;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #2b00fe; font-size: 16pt;">TYPES OF CHEMOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA</span></h2> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Chemosynthesis allows different types of bacteria (chemosynthetic bacteria) to survive without relying on light energy or other organisms for food.</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Here, the energy used to manufacture food materials is derived from a variety of inorganic chemicals and thus different chemical reactions. For this reason, there are different types of chemosynthetic bacteria based on the type of compounds they use as an energy source. </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Some chemosynthetic bacteria live in sunny environments and are therefore exposed to sunlight. However, they do not rely on sunlight as a source of energy </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><u><span style="background: white; font-size: 14pt;"><a href="https://www.microscopemaster.com/sulfur-bacteria.html"><span style="color: #ff00fe;">Sulfur bacteria</span></a></span></u></b><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;"> - These bacteria (e.g. Paracoccus) oxidize such sulfur compounds as hydrogen sulfide (sulfides) thiosulfates and inorganic sulfur etc. Depending on the organism, or the type of sulfur compound being used, the oxidation process takes place in several stages.</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">In some of the organisms, for instance, inorganic sulfur will be stored until they are required for use. </span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="background: white; color: #ff00fe; font-size: 14pt;"><u>Nitrogen bacteria</u></span></b><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;"> - Divided into three groups that include nitrifying bacteria, denitrifying bacteria, and </span><u><span style="background: white; color: #226dab; font-size: 14pt;"><a href="https://www.microscopemaster.com/what-are-nitrogen-fixing-bacteria.html"><span style="color: #226dab;">nitrogen-fixing bacteria</span></a></span></u><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">. In the case of nitrifying bacteria, ammonia is first oxidized to hydroxylamine in the </span><u><span style="background: white; color: #226dab; font-size: 14pt;"><a href="https://www.microscopemaster.com/cytoplasm.html"><span style="color: #226dab;">cytoplasm</span></a></span></u><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;"> (by ammonium monooxygenase).</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun;">The hydroxylamine is then oxidized to produce nitrite in the periplasm by hydroxylamine oxidoreductase. This process produces a proton (one proton for each molecule of ammonium). As compared to nitrifying bacteria, denitrifying bacteria oxidize nitrate compounds as a source of energy. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="color: #ff00fe;"><b><u><span style="background: white; font-size: 14pt;"><a href="https://www.microscopemaster.com/methanobacteria.html"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Methanobacteria</span></a></span></u></b><b><span style="background: white; font-size: 14pt;">/methane bacteria</span></b></span><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;"> - Although some scientists have suggested that some bacteria use methane as a source of energy for chemosynthesis, this is particularly common among chemosynthetic archaebacteria. </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="color: #ff00fe;"><b><span style="background: white; font-size: 14pt;">Hydrogen bacteria</span></b><span style="background: white; font-size: 14pt;"> </span></span><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">- Such bacteria as Hydrogenovibrio marinus and Helicobacter pylori oxidize hydrogen as a source of energy under microaerophilic conditions.</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">For the most part, these bacteria have been shown to be </span><u><span style="background: white; color: #226dab; font-size: 14pt;"><a href="https://www.microscopemaster.com/anaerobes.html"><span style="color: #226dab;">anaerobic</span></a></span></u><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;"> and therefore thrive in areas with very little to no oxygen. This is largely due to the fact that the enzyme used for oxidation purposes (Hydrogenase) functions effectively in anaerobic conditions. </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><b><span style="background: white; color: #ff00fe; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun;">Iron bacteria</span></b><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun;"> - Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Leptospirillum ferrooxidans are some of the bacteria that oxidize iron. This process has been shown to occur under different conditioned depending on the organism (e.g. low pH and oxic-anoxic). <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun;">During chemosynthesis, chemosynthetic bacteria, being non-photosynthetic, have to rely on energy produced by oxidation of these compounds (inorganic) in order to manufacture food (sugars) while nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert nitrogen gas into nitrate. All these processes serve to produce a proton used in carbon dioxide fixation. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 7.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 21.0pt; margin: 21pt 0in 7.9pt; mso-line-height-alt: .8pt;"><span face=""Calibri","sans-serif"" style="background: white; color: #2b00fe; font-size: 16pt;">IMPORTANCE OF CHEMOSYNTHESIS</span></h2> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Essentially, chemosynthesis refers to the process through which chemosynthetic bacteria process food using chemical energy. Therefore, compared to photosynthesis, these organisms are not dependent on light energy for production. This makes them important primary producers in various habitats that contain such oxidants as nitrates and sulfates. </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">In deep-sea vent ecosystems, for instance, the absence of sunlight means that photosynthesis cannot take place. Because of the ability of some bacteria to manufacture food through chemosynthesis, they play an important role as producers in this ecosystem. </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">This behavior has also been shown to benefit other organisms through a symbiotic relationship. For instance, in various environments, nitrogen-fixing bacteria have been shown to form symbiotic relationships that benefit a variety of organisms (</span><u><span style="background: white; color: #226dab; font-size: 14pt;"><a href="https://www.microscopemaster.com/algae.html"><span style="color: #226dab;">algae</span></a></span></u><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">, </span><u><span style="background: white; color: #226dab; font-size: 14pt;"><a href="https://www.microscopemaster.com/diatoms.html"><span style="color: #226dab;">diatoms</span></a></span></u><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">, legumes, sponges, etc). Here, they are able to convert nitrogen (abundant in nature) into useable forms. </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Here, these bacteria can catalyze atmospheric nitrogen to produce ammonia (using an enzyme known as nitrogenase) which is then used by plants for the synthesis of nitrogenous biomolecules. </span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">One of the other symbiotic relationships that have received significant attention is between tubeworms (Riftia pachyptila) and chemosynthetic bacteria in hydrothermal vents. In this environment, water temperatures are extremely high due to geothermal heat. Moreover, these worms live at the seafloor (environment lacking light energy). </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Despite the unfavorable conditions in this environment (extremely high temperatures and lack of light), the availability of hydrogen sulfide allows bacteria to carry out chemosynthesis.</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Using a highly vascularized gill-like plume, the worm is able to take in dissolved carbon dioxide, oxygen, and hydrogen sulfide (the hemoglobin of these organisms are capable of binding oxygen and sulfides). They are then transported to specialized cells known as bacteriocytes where chemosynthetic bacteria reside. </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Using the sulfide and oxygen, the bacteria produce energy (ATP) that is then used to convert carbon dioxide into sugars. These sugars are then used by the </span><u><span style="background: white; color: #226dab; font-size: 14pt;"><a href="https://www.microscopemaster.com/phylum-mollusca.html"><span style="color: #226dab;">mollusk</span></a></span></u><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;"> as a source of food. </span></p> <p style="background: white; margin-bottom: 10.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.25pt; margin: 5.25pt 0in 10.5pt; mso-line-height-alt: 1.0pt;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Such symbiotic relationships have also been identified with:</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: .5in;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">olemyid and lucinid bivalves</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: .5in;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Achinoids</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: .5in;"><u><span style="background: white; color: #226dab; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><a href="https://www.microscopemaster.com/ciliates.html"><span style="color: #226dab;">Ciliate protists</span></a></span></u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: .5in;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Marine sponges</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: .5in;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Mussels</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></li> </ul> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>

Bacteria chemosynthesis Glucose Microbes CHEMOSYNTHESIS

CHEMOSYNTHESIS              Chemosynthesis is the synthesis of organic compounds by bacteria or other living organisms using energy derive...

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Chemosynthetic Food Chain

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <br /> <br /> <br /> Chemosynthesis is the conversion of carbon compounds and other molecules into organic compounds. In this biochemical reaction, methane or an inorganic compound, such as hydrogen sulfide or hydrogen gas, is oxidized to act as the energy source. In contrast, the energy source for photosynthesis (the set of reactions through which carbon dioxide and water are converted into glucose and oxygen) uses energy from sunlight to power the process.<br /> <br /> <br /> The idea that microorganisms could live on inorganic compounds was proposed by Sergei Nikolaevich Vinogradnsii (Winogradsky) in 1890, based on research conducted on bacteria which appeared to live from nitrogen, iron, or sulfur. The hypothesis was validated in 1977 when the deep sea submersible Alvin observed tube worms and other life surrounding hydrothermal vents at the Galapagos Rift. Harvard student Colleen Cavanaugh proposed and later confirmed the tube worms survived because of their relationship with chemosynthetic bacteria. The official discovery of chemosynthesis is credited to Cavanaugh.<br /> <br /> <br /> Organisms that obtain energy by oxidation of electron donors are called chemotrophs. If the molecules are organic, the organisms are called chemoorganotrophs. If the molecules are inorganic, the organisms are terms chemolithotrophs. In contrast, organisms that use solar energy are called phototrophs.<br /> <br /> Chemoautotrophs and Chemoheterotrophs<br /> Chemoautotrophs obtain their energy from chemical reactions and synthesize organic compounds from carbon dioxide. The energy source for chemosynthesis may be elemental sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, molecular hydrogen, ammonia, manganese, or iron. Examples of chemoautotrophs include bacteria and methanogenic archaea living in deep sea vents. The word "chemosynthesis" was originally coined by Wilhelm Pfeffer in 1897 to describe energy production by oxidation of inorganic molecules by autotrophs (chemolithoautotrophy). Under the modern definition, chemosynthesis also describes energy production via chemoorganoautotrophy.<br /> <br /> <br /> Chemoheterotrophs cannot fix carbon to form organic compounds. Instead, they can use inorganic energy sources, such as sulfur (chemolithoheterotrophs) or organic energy sources, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids (chemoorganoheterotrophs).<br /> <br /> Where Does Chemosynthesis Occur?<br /> Chemosynthesis has been detected in hydrothermal vents, isolated caves, methane clathrates, whale falls, and cold seeps. It has been hypothesized the process may permit life below the surface of Mars and Jupiter's moon Europa. as well as other places in the solar system. Chemosynthesis can occur in the presences of oxygen, but it is not required.<br /> <br /> Example of Chemosynthesis<br /> In addition to bacterial and archaea, some larger organisms rely on chemosynthesis. A good example is the giant tube worm which is found in great numbers surrounding deep hydrothermal vents. Each worm houses chemosynthetic bacteria in an organ called a trophosome. The bacteria oxidize sulfur from the worm's environment to produce the nourishment the animal needs. Using hydrogen sulfide as the energy source, the reaction for chemosynthesis is:<br /> <br /> 12 H2S + 6 CO2 → C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 12 S<br /> <br /> This is much like the reaction to produce carbohydrate via photosynthesis, except photosynthesis releases oxygen gas, while chemosynthesis yields solid sulfur. The yellow sulfur granules are visible in the cytoplasm of bacteria that perform the reaction.<br /> <br /> Another example of chemosynthesis was discovered in 2013 when bacteria were found living in basalt below the sediment of the ocean floor. These bacteria were not associated with a hydrothermal vent. It has been suggested the bacteria use hydrogen from the reduction of minerals in seawater bathing the rock. The bacteria could react hydrogen and carbon dioxide to produce methane.<br /> <br /> Chemosynthesis in Molecular Nanotechnology<br /> While the term "chemosynthesis" is most often applied to biological systems, it can be used more generally to describe any form of chemical synthesis brought about by random thermal motion of reactants. In contrast, mechanical manipulation of molecules to control their reaction is called "mechanosynthesis". Both chemosynthesis and mechanosynthesis have the potential to construct complex compounds, including new molecules and organic molecules.<br /> Chemosynthetic Bacteria<br /> Chemosynthetic bacteria are organisms that use inorganic molecules as a source of energy and convert them into organic substances. Chemosynthetic bacteria, unlike plants, obtain their energy from the oxidation of inorganic molecules, rather than photosynthesis. Chemosynthetic bacteria use inorganic molecules, such as ammonia, molecular hydrogen, sulfur, hydrogen sulfide and ferrous iron, to produce the organic compounds needed for their subsistence.<br /> <br /> Most chemosynthetic bacteria live in environments where sunlight is unable to penetrate and which are considered inhospitable to most known organisms. Chemosynthetic bacteria usually thrive in remote environments, including the Arctic and Antarctic polar regions, where they can be found deep into the ice; they are also found many miles deep in the ocean where sunlight is unable to infiltrate or several meters deep into the Earth’s crust.<br /> <br /> Chemosynthetic bacteria are chemoautotrophs because they’re able to use the energy stored in inorganic molecules and convert them in organic compounds. They're primary producers because they produce their own food. An organism that produces organic molecules from organic carbon is classified as a chemoheterotroph. Chemoheterotrophs are at the second level in a food chain.<br /> <br /> How Do Living Organisms Obtain Their Energy?<br /> All living organisms obtain their energy in two different ways. The means by which organisms obtain their energy depends on the source from which they derive that energy. Some organisms obtain their energy from the sun by the process of photosynthesis. These organisms are known as phototrophs because they can make their own organic molecules using sunlight as a source of energy. Among the organisms that can use sunlight as a source of energy include plants, algae and some species of bacteria.<br /> <br /> The organic molecules produced by phototrophs are used by other organisms known as heterotrophs, which derive their energy from phototrophs, that is to say, they use the energy from the sun, indirectly, by feeding on them, producing the organic compounds for their subsistence. Heterotrophs include animals, humans, fungi, and some species of bacteria, such as those found in the human intestines.<br /> <br /> Photosynthesis<br /> Phototroph<br /> Phototroph | Source<br /> <br /> Chemosynthesis<br /> The second way in which organisms can obtain their energy is through chemosynthesis. Organisms living in regions where sunlight is not available produce their energy by the process of chemosynthesis. During chemosynthesis, bacteria use the energy derived from the chemical oxidation of inorganic compounds to produce organic molecules and water.<br /> <br /> This process occurs in the absence of light. the life forms that utilize this method of obtaining energy are found in places, such as soil, petroleum deposits, ice caps, lava mud, animal gut, hot springs and hydrothermal vents, among many others.<br /> <br /> Hot Spring<br /> Hot Spring<br /> Hot Spring | Source<br /> What is the Difference between Photosynthesis and Chemosynthesis?<br /> The survival of many organisms living in the ecosystems of the world depends on the ability of other organisms to convert inorganic compounds into energy that can be used by these and other organisms. Plants, algae, and bacteria have the ability to use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide (CO2) and convert them into organic compounds necessary for life in a process called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis may take place in marine or terrestrial environments where the producing organisms are able to use sunlight as a source of energy.<br /> <br /> <br /> Chemosynthesis occurs in environments where sunlight is not able to penetrate, such as in hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean, coastal sediments, volcanoes, water in caves, cold seeps in the ocean floor, terrestrial hot springs, sunken ships, and within the decayed bodies of whales, among many others. Chemosynthetic bacteria use the energy stored within inorganic chemicals to synthesize the organic compounds needed for their metabolic processes.<br /> <br /> Hydrothermal Vent<br /> Hydrothermal Vent<br /> Hydrothermal Vent<br /> Chemosynthetic Bacteria in Hydrothermal Vents<br /> Hydrothermal vents are fissures in the deep ocean crust where super-heated lava and magma seep, releasing dissolved chemicals when coming in contact with the deep ocean’s cold water. The dissolved chemicals, including hydrogen sulfide, methane, and reduced sulfate metals, form chimney-like structures known as black smokers. Hydrothermal vents are located very deep into the ocean where sunlight is unable to penetrate; therefore, the organisms that live at hydrothermal vents obtain their energy from the chemicals ejected out from the ocean crust.<br /> <br /> Around hydrothermal vents, many miles below the ocean’s surface, there exists a community of organisms that utilize the substances coming out from the cracks as sources of energy to produce organic material. The giant tube worm (Riftia pachyptila) lives in a symbiotic relationship with sulfur-oxidizing bacteria. Since the energy from the Sun cannot be utilized at such depths, the tube worm absorbs hydrogen sulfide from the vent and provides it to the bacteria. The bacteria capture the energy from the sulfur and produces organic compounds for both the tube worm and the bacteria.<br /> <br /> <br /> Giant Tube Worm<br /> Giant Tube Worm<br /> Giant Tube Worm | Source<br /> What Are Extremophiles?<br /> Extremophiles are organisms that thrive under conditions that are considered detrimental for most organisms. These organisms can live in habitats where no other organisms can, and are capable of tolerating a wide range of hostile environmental conditions. These organisms are termed based on the conditions in which they grow, thus, some are thermophiles, psychrophiles, acidophiles, halophiles, etc. There are extremophiles that are able to grow in more than one habitat and are termed polyextremophiles.<br /> <br /> Microbes are extremely adaptable to harsh environment conditions and it is believed that extremophiles could be found in every unimaginable place on Earth. Extremophiles are organisms that can live in very harsh environments. Although most of them are microbes, there are some which do not fall into the classification of archaea and bacteria<br /> <br /> It is believed that the first organisms inhabiting the Earth were chemosynthetic bacteria that produced oxygen and later evolved into animal and plant-like organisms. Some organisms that rely on chemosynthesis to derive the energy they need include nitrifying bacteria, sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, sulfur-reducing bacteria, iron-oxidizing bacteria, halobacterium, bacillus, clostridium, and vibrio, among others.<br /> Question:What is the ecological importance of chemosynthetic bacteria?<br /> Answer:<br /> Bacteria play an important role in the environment both in and out of the water. Bacteria help decompose the remains of plants and animals and other waste into nutrients that other living organisms can use.<br /> <br /> Helpful 16<br /> Question:How do chemosynthetic bacteria perform sexual reproduction?<br /> Answer:<br /> Many bacteria reproduce through the process of binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction in which bacteria divides into two or more parts. This division may double the quantity of bacteria in minutes. Some bacteria can grow to a quantity that surpasses the number of human beings on earth in just a few hours<br /> <br /> Helpful 11<br /> Question:Do chemosynthetic organisms convert energy, stored within inorganic molecules, into chemical energy for primary production?<br /> Answer:<br /> Chemosynthetic organisms-also called chemoautotrophs-use carbon dioxide, oxygen and hydrogen sulfide to produce sugars and amino acids that other living creatures can use to survive. They are the primary producers in their food web. An example of this is the bacteria living inside the tubeworms in a hydrothermal vent<br /> <br /> Helpful 9<br /> Question:When there is no hydrothermal vent, how does the bacteria make food?<br /> Answer:<br /> Chemosynthesis can develop in the cracks of the ocean´s crust. The bacteria that are found there can synthesize methane by combining hydrogen and carbon dioxide. It's believed that the chemical reactions that occur on earth could occur on other planets where the conditions are similar to those on earth<br /> <br /> Helpful 8<br /> Question:How could the discovery of chemosynthesis change the way in which scientists look for life on other planets?<br /> Answer:<br /> Scientists have discovered that there exist bodies of water and ocean depths in other worlds, such as the moons of Europa and Ganymede; moons of Jupiter but also on Ceres and Enceladus; moon of Saturn, among many other beyond the earth bodies. It´s thought that on the depths of these bodies there could be life forms similar to the ones found on the earth's ocean floor<br /> <br /> ENERGY AND FOOD WEBS<br /> All living things require energy in order to survive and carry out their life processes, such as growth, reproduction and for their metabolism. For example, when thinking about our Ocean Tracks species, a large amount of energy is required to migrate the thousands of miles they may travel.<br /> <br /> This energy comes from the organism’s ecosystem and in many cases from the food that organism eats. But where did the energy in those food sources come from?<br /> <br /> For much of the life on Earth, the primary source of energy is from the sun. Through photosynthesis, plants are able to capture energy from sunlight and use that energy to power reactions that transform carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and sugar molecules. This process removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provides the oxygen that we breathe.<br /> Life is possible, however, even in the absence of sunlight. For example, microbes living in hydrothermal vent communities are able to use inorganic chemical compounds through a process known as chemosynthesis to create energy. These chemosynthetic microbes are the foundation of the food web in hydrothermal vent communities. Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis make it possible for life to exist on Earth!<br /> <br /> Organisms that are able to capture energy either from sunlight or chemicals and convert it into a form that other organisms can use are called autotrophs.<br /> <br /> Autotrophs are also known as primary producers, and are are a highly important food source for other organisms. On land, primary producers are mostly plants such as grass in trees. In the ocean, 95% of the primary production is done by microscopic phytoplankton. Phytoplankton contribute 50% of the oxygen in our atmosphere. Some phytoplankton are bacteria and others are protists. Two important types of phytoplankton that are diatoms and dinoflagellates.<br /> <br /> In coastal regions of the ocean, algae, such as kelps and rockweeds, and plants, such as sea grasses, are important primary producers.<br /> <br /> For organisms that cannot make their own food, they must ingest other organisms to fulfill their energy requirements. These organisms are called heterotrophs. Heterotrophs are also called consumers because they must consume other organisms for energy and nutrients.<br /> <br /> Consumers obtain their energy in different ways:<br /> There are herbivores that feed on plant material. In the ocean, an example of an herbivore would be a periwinkle grazing on some algae.<br /> There are carnivores that kill and eat other animals. In the ocean, of course one of the greatest carnivores is the great white shark.<br /> There are scavengers and detritivores that feed on dead plants and animals, such as a hagfish feeding on a dead whale in the deep ocean.<br /> Omnivores feed on both plants and animals.  The hawksbill sea turtle is an omnivore, feeding on sea urchins, mollusks, crustaceans and algae.<br /> Decomposers are bacteria that chemically break down organic matter.<br /> <br /> A food chain is a set of linkages that show who eats who in an ecosystem and the transfer of energy that takes place.<br /> <br /> Food chains start with a primary producer. Energy is then transferred to a primary consumer, then secondary, tertiary, and quaternary consumers in sequence.<br /> <br /> The primary consumer is an organism that eats a primary producer, which can include a zooplankton or snail in the ocean.<br /> <br /> The secondary consumer is an organism that eats a primary consumer, and includes fish species that feed on the zooplankton.<br /> <br /> Tertiary consumers feed on secondary consumers, and quaternary consumers feed on tertiary consumers. These groups include higher level predators such as sharks.<br /> <br /> In reality most ecosystems are more complicated than a simple chain of feeding interactions. Many species consume more than one type of species, creating a complex web of interactions known as a food web.<br /> <br /> In the visual below, you can see an example of a food web in the open ocean ecosystem and also one food chain that is a part of that food web. You may notice, however, that even the picture of the food web is incomplete since only a small number of ocean species are represented.<br /> foodwebchain<br /> <br /> Each step of the food web or chain is called a trophic level. Primary producers are always the first trophic level and are represented at the bottom of an ecological pyramid. The diagram below shows an example of an ecological pyramid for the ocean.<br /> trophiclevel<br /> <br /> These pyramids can also show how much energy is available at each trophic level of a food web. The average amount of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next is 10%. For example, 10% of the solar energy that is captured by phytoplankton gets passed on to zooplankton (primary consumers). Ten percent of that energy (10% of 10%, which is 1%) gets passed on to the organisms (secondary consumers) that eat the zooplankton.<br /> With more trophic levels that exist between the primary producer and a consumer, the smaller the amount of energy that gets passed on to the consumer. The shape of the pyramid reflects the idea that they amount of energy gets smaller as you move up the food chain. The visual below shows how little energy gets passed along as you get higher in the food chain.<br /> energytransfer<br /> <br /> <div class="Diagram" id="resource" style="background-color: #f9f7f4; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: "helvetica neue", helvetica, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px; overflow-x: auto; padding: 0px 0px 2em; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 1040px;"> <img alt="Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis" height="700" src="https://teara.govt.nz/files/large_images/8960-enz_0.jpg" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; height: auto; margin: 0px auto; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: auto;" title="Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis" typeof="foaf:Image" width="660" /></div> <div class="resource_body" style="background-color: #f9f7f4; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: georgia, palatino, "palatino linotype", times, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 1.125em; line-height: 1.375em; margin-bottom: 1.375em; padding: 0px 4em; vertical-align: baseline;"> Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use the sun’s energy to make sugar (glucose) for food. Plants absorb energy from sunlight, take in carbon dioxide from the air through their leaves, take up water through their roots, and produce glucose and oxygen. Photosynthesis takes place on land and in shallow water where sunlight can reach seaweeds.</div> <div style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: georgia, palatino, "palatino linotype", times, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 1.125em; line-height: 1.375em; margin-bottom: 1.375em; padding: 0px 4em; vertical-align: baseline;"> Chemosynthesis is the process by which food (glucose) is made by bacteria using chemicals as the energy source, rather than sunlight. Chemosynthesis occurs around hydrothermal vents and methane seeps in the deep sea where sunlight is absent. During chemosynthesis, bacteria living on the sea floor or within animals use energy stored in the chemical bonds of hydrogen sulfide and methane to make glucose from water and carbon dioxide (dissolved in sea water). Pure sulfur and sulfur compounds are produced as by-products.</div> <div style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: georgia, palatino, "palatino linotype", times, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 1.125em; line-height: 1.375em; margin-bottom: 1.375em; padding: 0px 4em; vertical-align: baseline;"> In the diagram mussels and tubeworms are using the hydrogen sulfide released from a hydrothermal vent. The chemical equation given here for chemosynthesis is just one of a number of possibilities.</div> <div style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: georgia, palatino, "palatino linotype", times, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 1.125em; line-height: 1.375em; margin-bottom: 1.375em; padding: 0px 4em; vertical-align: baseline;"> <br /></div> <div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: white; clear: right; color: #222222; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Venenivibrio.jpg" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" data-file-height="653" data-file-width="478" decoding="async" height="301" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Venenivibrio.jpg/220px-Venenivibrio.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Venenivibrio.jpg/330px-Venenivibrio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Venenivibrio.jpg/440px-Venenivibrio.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><br /> <div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"> <div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"> <a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Venenivibrio.jpg" style="background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url("about:blank"); color: #0b0080; display: block; height: 11px; overflow: hidden; text-indent: 15px; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venenivibrio_stagnispumantis" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Venenivibrio stagnispumantis">Venenivibrio stagnispumantis</a></i> gains energy by oxidizing hydrogen gas.</div> </div> </div> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> In biochemistry, <b>chemosynthesis</b> is the biological conversion of one or more carbon-containing molecules (usually <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Methane">methane</a>) and nutrients into organic matter using the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidation" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a> of inorganic compounds (e.g., <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> gas, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>) or methane as a source of energy, rather than sunlight, as in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotroph" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Chemotroph">Chemoautotrophs</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Organism">organisms</a> that obtain carbon through chemosynthesis, are phylogenetically diverse, but also groups that include conspicuous or biogeochemically-important taxa include the sulfur-oxidizing gamma and epsilon <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteobacteria" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Proteobacteria">proteobacteria</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquificae" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Aquificae">Aquificae</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanogen" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Methanogen">methanogenic</a> archaea and the neutrophilic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron-oxidizing_bacteria" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Iron-oxidizing bacteria">iron-oxidizing bacteria</a>.</div> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> Many microorganisms in dark regions of the oceans use chemosynthesis to produce biomass from single carbon molecules. Two categories can be distinguished. In the rare sites at which hydrogen molecules (H<sub style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sub>) are available, the energy available from the reaction between CO<sub style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sub>and H<sub style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sub> (leading to production of methane, CH<sub style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">4</sub>) can be large enough to drive the production of biomass. Alternatively, in most oceanic environments, energy for chemosynthesis derives from reactions in which substances such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> are oxidized. This may occur with or without the presence of oxygen.</div> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> Many chemosynthetic microorganisms are consumed by other organisms in the ocean, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic</a> associations between chemosynthesizers and respiring heterotrophs are quite common. Large populations of animals can be supported by chemosynthetic <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_production" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Secondary production">secondary production</a> at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane_clathrate" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Methane clathrate">methane clathrates</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_seep" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whale_fall" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Whale fall">whale falls</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movile_Cave" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Movile Cave">isolated cave water</a>.</div> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> It has been hypothesized that chemosynthesis may support life below the surface of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_on_Mars" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Life on Mars">Mars</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Jupiter">Jupiter's</a> moon <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_(moon)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a>, and other planets.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesis#cite_note-1" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;">[1]</a></sup>Chemosynthesis may have also been the first type of metabolism that evolved on Earth, leading the way for cellular respiration and photosynthesis to develop later.</div> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> <br /></div> <h2 style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "linux libertine", georgia, times, serif; font-size: 16px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Hydrogen_sulfide_chemosynthesis_process">Hydrogen sulfide chemosynthesis process</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: x-small; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemosynthesis&action=edit&section=1" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Edit section: Hydrogen sulfide chemosynthesis process">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_tube_worm" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Giant tube worm">Giant tube worms</a> use bacteria in their <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophosome" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Trophosome">trophosome</a> to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fixation" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Carbon fixation">fix carbon dioxide</a> (using <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> as an energy source) and produce sugars and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesis#cite_note-2" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;">[2]</a></sup> Some reactions produce sulfur:</div> <dl style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;">hydrogen sulfide chemosynthesis:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesis#cite_note-3" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;">[3]</a></sup><br /> <dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;">12<b>H</b><sub style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sub><span style="color: blue;"><b>S</b></span> + 6C<span style="color: red;"><b>O</b></span><sub style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sub> → C<sub style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">6</sub><b>H</b><sub style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">12</sub><span style="color: red;"><b>O</b></span><sub style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">6</sub> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrate</a>) + 6<b>H</b><sub style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sub><span style="color: red;"><b>O</b></span> + 12S</dd></dl> </dd></dl> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> Instead of releasing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> gas while fixing carbon dioxide as in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, hydrogen sulfide chemosynthesis produces solid globules of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> in the process. In bacteria capable of chemoautotrophy (a form a chemosynthesis), such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple_sulfur_bacteria" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Purple sulfur bacteria">purple sulfur bacteria</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesis#cite_note-4" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;">[4]</a></sup>, yellow globules of sulfur are present and visible in the cytoplasm.</div> <h2 style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-family: "linux libertine", georgia, times, serif; font-size: 16px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Discovery">Discovery</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: x-small; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemosynthesis&action=edit&section=2" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Edit section: Discovery">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: white; clear: right; color: #222222; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gollner_Riftia_pachyptila.png" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" data-file-height="543" data-file-width="664" decoding="async" height="180" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Gollner_Riftia_pachyptila.png/220px-Gollner_Riftia_pachyptila.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Gollner_Riftia_pachyptila.png/330px-Gollner_Riftia_pachyptila.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Gollner_Riftia_pachyptila.png/440px-Gollner_Riftia_pachyptila.png 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><br /> <div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"> <div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"> <a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gollner_Riftia_pachyptila.png" style="background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url("about:blank"); color: #0b0080; display: block; height: 11px; overflow: hidden; text-indent: 15px; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Giant tube worms (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riftia_pachyptila" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Riftia pachyptila">Riftia pachyptila</a></i>) have an organ containing chemosynthetic bacteria instead of a gut.</div> </div> </div> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> In 1890, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Winogradsky" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Sergei Winogradsky">Sergei Winogradsky</a> proposed a novel type of life process called "anorgoxydant". His discovery suggested that some microbes could live solely on inorganic matter and emerged during his physiological research in the 1880s in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strasbourg" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Zürich">Zürich</a> on sulfur, iron, and nitrogen bacteria.</div> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> In 1897, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Pfeffer" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Wilhelm Pfeffer">Wilhelm Pfeffer</a> coined the term "chemosynthesis" for the energy production by oxidation of inorganic substances, in association with <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotrophy" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Autotrophy">autotrophic</a> carbon dioxide assimilation—what would be named today as chemolithoautotrophy. Later, the term would be expanded to include also chemoorganoautotrophs, which are organisms that use organic energy substrates in order to assimilate carbon dioxide.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesis#cite_note-5" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;">[5]</a></sup> Thus, chemosynthesis can be seen as a synonym of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemoautotrophy" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Chemoautotrophy">chemoautotrophy</a>.</div> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> The term "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotroph" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Chemotroph">chemotrophy</a>", less restrictive, would be introduced in the 1940s by <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Lwoff" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="André Lwoff">André Lwoff</a> for the production of energy by the oxidation of electron donors, organic or not, associated with auto- or heterotrophy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesis#cite_note-6" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;">[6]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesis#cite_note-7" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;">[7]</a></sup></div> <h3 style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); border-bottom: 0px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Hydrothermal_vents">Hydrothermal vents</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemosynthesis&action=edit&section=3" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Edit section: Hydrothermal vents">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> The suggestion of Winogradsky was confirmed nearly 90 years later, when hydrothermal <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Ocean">ocean</a> vents were predicted to exist in the 1970s. The hot springs and strange creatures were discovered by <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSV_Alvin" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="DSV Alvin">Alvin</a></i>, the world's first deep-sea submersible, in 1977 at the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galapagos_Rift" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Galapagos Rift">Galapagos Rift</a>. At about the same time, then-graduate student <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colleen_Cavanaugh" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Colleen Cavanaugh">Colleen Cavanaugh</a> proposed chemosynthetic bacteria that oxidize sulfides or elemental sulfur as a mechanism by which <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tube_worm_(body_plan)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Tube worm (body plan)">tube worms</a>could survive near hydrothermal vents. Cavanaugh later managed to confirm that this was indeed the method by which the worms could thrive, and is generally credited with the discovery of chemosynthesis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesis#cite_note-8" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;">[8]</a></sup></div> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> A 2004 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Television">television</a> series hosted by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Nye" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Bill Nye">Bill Nye</a> named chemosynthesis as one of the 100 greatest scientific discoveries of all time.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-nye_9-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesis#cite_note-nye-9" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;">[9]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesis#cite_note-10" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;">[10]</a></sup></div> <h3 style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); border-bottom: 0px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Oceanic_crust">Oceanic crust</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemosynthesis&action=edit&section=4" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Edit section: Oceanic crust">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> In 2013, researchers reported their discovery of bacteria living in the rock of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_crust" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a> below the thick layers of sediment, and apart from the hydrothermal vents that form along the edges of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonic_plate" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Tectonic plate">tectonic plates</a>. Preliminary findings are that these bacteria subsist on the hydrogen produced by chemical reduction of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivine" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Olivine">olivine</a> by seawater circulating in the small veins that permeate the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Basalt">basalt</a> that comprises oceanic crust. The bacteria synthesize methane by combining hydrogen and carbon dioxide.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesis#cite_note-11" style="background: none; color: #0b0080;">[1</a></sup></div> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> <br /></div> <div style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"> <br /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-size: 15px; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> Chemotrophs are organisms that obtain energy through chemical process called chemosynthesis rather than by <a href="https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Photosynthesis" style="background: none transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3366bb;" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. Chemosynthesis is carried out by chemotrophs through the <a href="https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Oxidation" style="background: none transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3366bb;" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a> of <a href="https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Electron" style="background: none transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3366bb;" title="Electron">electron</a> donors in the <a href="https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Environment" style="background: none transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3366bb;" title="Environment">environment</a>. Chemotrophs may be <a href="https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Chemoautotroph" style="background: none transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3366bb;" title="Chemoautotroph">chemoautotroph</a> or <a class="mw-selflink selflink" href="https://www.blogger.com/null" style="background: none transparent; box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; font-weight: bold;">chemoheterotroph</a>.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-size: 15px; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink" href="https://www.blogger.com/null" style="background: none transparent; box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; font-weight: bold;">Chemoheterotrophs</a> are chemotrophs that are heterotrophic organisms. They are not capable of fixing carbon to form their own <a href="https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Organic_compound" style="background: none transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3366bb;" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a>. They may be further classified as chemolithoheterotrophs or chemoorganoheterotrophs. Chemolithoheterotrophs are those that utilize inorganic energy sources whereas chemoorganoheterotrophs are those using organic energy sources. Chemoorganoheterotrophs may be further grouped based on the kind of organic substrate and compound they use. Decomposers obtain these substrates and compounds from dead organic matter. Herbivores and carnivores derive theirs from living organic matter.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-size: 15px; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> Most chemoheterotrophs obtain <a href="https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Energy" style="background: none transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3366bb;" title="Energy">energy</a> by ingesting <a href="https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Organic_molecule" style="background: none transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3366bb;" title="Organic molecule">organic molecules</a> like <a href="https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Glucose" style="background: none transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3366bb;" title="Glucose">glucose</a>. In contrast, chemoautotrophs are autotrophs that use chemical energy to produce carbohydrates. They utilize inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, sulfur, ammonium, and ferrous iron as reducing agents, and synthesize organic compounds from <a href="https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Carbon_dioxide" style="background: none transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #3366bb;" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-size: 15px; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <br /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;">Chemosynthesis is the conversion of inorganic carbon-containing compounds into organic matter such as sugars and amino acids. Chemosynthesis uses energy from inorganic chemicals to perform this task.</span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;"><br /></span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;"><br /></span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <br /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;">The inorganic “energy source” is usually a molecule that has electrons to spare, such as hydrogen gas, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, or ferrous iron. Like photosynthesis and cellular respiration, chemosynthesis uses an electron transport chain to synthesize ATP.</span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;"><br /></span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;">After having its electrons passed through the electron transport chain, the chemical fuel source emerges in a different form. Hydrogen sulfide gas, for example, is converted into solid elemental sulfur plus water.</span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;"><br /></span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;">The term “chemosynthesis” comes from the root words “chemo” for “chemical” and “synthesis” for “to make.” Its function is similar to that of photosynthesis, which also turns inorganic matter into organic matter – but uses the energy of sunlight, instead of chemical energy to do so.</span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;"><br /></span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;">Today chemosynthesis is used by microbes such as bacteria and archaea. Because chemosynthesis alone is less efficient than photosynthesis or cellular respiration, it cannot be used to power complex multicellular organisms.</span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;"><br /></span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;">A few multicellular organisms live in symbiotic relationships with chemosynthetic bacteria, making them a partial energy source. Giant tube worms, for example, host chemosynthetic bacteria which supply them with sugars and amino acids.</span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;"><br /></span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;">However, these tube worms are partially dependent on photosynthesis because they use oxygen (a product of photosynthetic organisms) to make their chemosynthesis more efficient.</span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;"><br /></span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;">Chemosynthesis Equation</span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "roboto" , , "blinkmacsystemfont" , "segoe ui" , "helvetica" , "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "noto sans" , sans-serif , "apple color emoji" , "segoe ui emoji" , "segoe ui symbol" , "noto color emoji";"><span style="font-size: 15px;">There are many different ways to achieve chemosynthesis. The equation for chemosynthesis will look different depending on which chemical energy source is used. However, all equations for chemosynthesis typically include:</span></span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-size: 15px; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <br /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-size: 15px; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <br /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-size: 15px; margin-bottom: 1rem;"> <br /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Reactants:</span></div> <div class="su-list" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; margin-bottom: 1.5em; margin-left: 0px;"> <ul style="box-sizing: border-box; list-style: none !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important;"> <li style="box-sizing: border-box; display: block; line-height: inherit; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 4px 0px 4px 2em; position: relative;"><span class="sui sui-pencil" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #ef1312; display: inline-block; font-family: "shortcodesultimateicons"; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: normal; height: 1.3em; left: 0px; line-height: 1.3em; position: absolute; text-align: center; top: 4px; width: 1.3em;"></span>A carbon-containing inorganic compound, such as carbon dioxide or methane. This will be the source of the carbon in the organic molecule at the end of the process.</li> <li style="box-sizing: border-box; display: block; line-height: inherit; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 4px 2em; position: relative;"><span class="sui sui-pencil" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #ef1312; display: inline-block; font-family: "shortcodesultimateicons"; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: normal; height: 1.3em; left: 0px; line-height: 1.3em; position: absolute; text-align: center; top: 4px; width: 1.3em;"></span>A chemical source of energy such as hydrogen gas, hydrogen sulfide, or ferrous iron.</li> </ul> </div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Products:</span></div> <div class="su-list" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; margin-bottom: 1.5em; margin-left: 0px;"> <ul style="box-sizing: border-box; list-style: none !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important;"> <li style="box-sizing: border-box; display: block; line-height: inherit; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 4px 0px 4px 2em; position: relative;"><span class="sui sui-pencil" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #ef1312; display: inline-block; font-family: "shortcodesultimateicons"; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: normal; height: 1.3em; left: 0px; line-height: 1.3em; position: absolute; text-align: center; top: 4px; width: 1.3em;"></span>An organic compound such as a sugar or amino acid.</li> <li style="box-sizing: border-box; display: block; line-height: inherit; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 4px 2em; position: relative;"><span class="sui sui-pencil" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #ef1312; display: inline-block; font-family: "shortcodesultimateicons"; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: normal; height: 1.3em; left: 0px; line-height: 1.3em; position: absolute; text-align: center; top: 4px; width: 1.3em;"></span>A transformed version of the energy source, such as elemental sulfur or ferric iron.</li> </ul> </div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> A commonly used example equation for chemosynthesis shows the transformation of carbon dioxide into sugar with the help of hydrogen sulfide gas:</div> <blockquote style="background-color: white; border-left: none; box-sizing: border-box; color: grey; font-family: Tahoma, Verdana, Geneva; font-size: 17px; font-style: italic; margin: 40px 34.7969px 38px; padding: 0px; position: relative;"> <div style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #029e00; font-size: 16px; line-height: 28px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-transform: uppercase;"> 12H<span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span>S + 6CO<span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span> → C<span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">6</span>H<span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">12</span>O<span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">6</span> (SUGAR MOLECULE) + 6H<span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span>O + 12S</div> </blockquote> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> This equation is sometimes reduced to its simplest possible ratio of ingredients. This shows the relative proportions of each ingredient necessary for the reaction, although it does not capture the full quantity of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide necessary to create a single sugar molecule.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> The reduced version looks like this:</div> <blockquote style="background-color: white; border-left: none; box-sizing: border-box; color: grey; font-family: Tahoma, Verdana, Geneva; font-size: 17px; font-style: italic; margin: 40px 34.7969px 38px; padding: 0px; position: relative;"> <div style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #029e00; font-size: 16px; line-height: 28px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-transform: uppercase;"> 2H<span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span>S + CO<span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span> → CH<span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span>O (SUGAR MOLECULE) + H<span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span>O + 2S</div> </blockquote> <h2 class="ftwp-heading" id="function-of-chemosynthesis" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #029e00; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 27px; font-weight: 400; line-height: 38px; margin: 10px 0px 20px;"> Function of Chemosynthesis</h2> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Chemosynthesis allows organisms to live without using the energy of sunlight or relying on other organisms for food.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Like chemosynthesis, it allows living things to make more of themselves. By turning inorganic molecules into organic molecules, the processes of chemosynthesis turn nonliving matter into living matter.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Today it is used by microbes living in the deep oceans, where no sunlight penetrates; but it is also used by some organisms living in sunny environments, such as iron bacteria and some soil bacteria.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Some scientists believe that chemosynthesis might be used by life forms in sunless extraterrestrial environments, such as in the oceans of Europa or underground environments on Mars.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> It has been proposed that chemosynthesis might actually have been the first form of metabolism on Earth, with photosynthesis and cellular respiration evolving later as life forms became more complex. We may never know for sure if this is true, but some scientists believe it’s interesting to consider whether sunlight or chemical energy was the first fuel for life on Earth.</div> <h2 class="ftwp-heading" id="types-of-chemosynthetic-bacteria" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #029e00; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 27px; font-weight: 400; line-height: 38px; margin: 10px 0px 20px;"> Types of Chemosynthetic Bacteria</h2> <h3 class="ftwp-heading" id="sulfur-bacteria" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #029e00; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 22px; font-weight: 400; line-height: 30px; margin: 10px 0px 17px;"> Sulfur Bacteria</h3> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> The example equation for chemosynthesis given above shows bacteria using a sulfur compound as an energy source.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> The bacteria in that equation consumes hydrogen sulfide gas (12H<span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12.75px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span>S), and then produces solid, elemental sulfur as a waste product (12S).</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Some bacteria that use chemosynthesis use elemental sulfur itself, or more complex sulfur compounds as fuel sources, instead of hydrogen sulfide.</div> <h3 class="ftwp-heading" id="metal-ion-bacteria" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #029e00; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 22px; font-weight: 400; line-height: 30px; margin: 10px 0px 17px;"> Metal Ion Bacteria</h3> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> The most well-known type of bacteria that use metal ions for chemosynthesis are iron bacteria.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Iron bacteria can actually pose a problem for water systems in iron-rich environments, because they consume dissolved metal ions in soil and water – and produce insoluble clumps of rust-like ferric iron, which can stain plumbing fixtures and even clog them up.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> However, iron bacteria are not the only organisms that use metal ions as an energy source for chemosynthesis. Other types of bacteria use arsenic, manganese, or even uranium as sources of electrons for their electron transport chains!</div> <h3 class="ftwp-heading" id="nitrogen-bacteria" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #029e00; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 22px; font-weight: 400; line-height: 30px; margin: 10px 0px 17px;"> Nitrogen Bacteria</h3> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Nitrogen bacteria are any bacteria that use nitrogen compounds in their metabolic process. While all of these bacteria use electrons from nitrogen compounds to create organic compounds, they can have very different effects on their <a href="https://biologydictionary.net/ecosystem/" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0588bc;" title="ecosystem">ecosystem</a> depending on what compounds they use.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Nitrogen bacteria can usually be divided into three classes:</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">1. Nitrifying bacteria:</span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Nitrifying bacteria grow in soils that contain ammonia. Ammonia is an inorganic nitrogen compound that is toxic to most plants and animals – but nitrifying bacteria can use it for food, and even turn it into a beneficial substance.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Nitrifying bacteria takes electrons from ammonia and converts the ammonia into nitrites, and ultimately nitrates. Nitrates are essential for many ecosystems because most plants need them to produce essential amino acids.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Nitrification is often a two-step process: one bacteria will convert ammonia into a nitrite, and then another bacteria <a href="https://biologydictionary.net/species/" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0588bc;" title="species">species</a> will convert that nitrite into a nitrate.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Nitrifying bacteria can turn otherwise hostile soils into fertile grounds for plants, and subsequently for animals.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">2. Denitrifying bacteria:</span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Denitrifying bacteria use nitrate compounds as their source of energy. In the process, they break these compounds down into forms that plants and animals cannot use.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> This means that denitrifying bacteria can be a very big problem for plants and animals – most <a href="https://biologydictionary.net/plant/" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0588bc;" title="plant">plant</a> species need nitrates in the soil in order to produce essential proteins for themselves, and for the animals that eat them.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Denitrifying bacteria compete for these compounds, and can deplete soil, resulting in limited ability for plants to grow.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">3. Nitrogen fixing bacteria:</span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> These bacteria are very beneficial to ecosystems, including human agriculture. They can turn nitrogen gas – which makes up most of our atmosphere – into nitrates that plants can use to make essential proteins.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Historically, fertility issues and even famine have happened when soil became depleted of nitrates due to natural processes or overuse of farmland.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Many cultures learned to keep soil fertile by rotating nitrogen-consuming crops with nitrogen-fixing crops.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> The secret of nitrogen-fixing crops is that the plants themselves do not fix nitrogen: instead, they have symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria often grow in colonies around the plants’ roots, releasing nitrates into the surrounding soil.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> The image below shows the roots of a “nitrogen-fixing plant” – note the round nodules which are, in fact, colonies of nitrogen-fixing chemosynthetic bacteria:<br /> <a class="fancybox image" href="https://biologydictionary.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Nitrogen-fixing-nodules-in-the-roots-of-legumes.jpg" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0588bc;"><img alt="Nitrogen fixing nodules in the roots of legumes" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-1995" height="200" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" src="https://biologydictionary.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Nitrogen-fixing-nodules-in-the-roots-of-legumes-300x200.jpg" srcset="https://biologydictionary.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Nitrogen-fixing-nodules-in-the-roots-of-legumes-300x200.jpg 300w, https://biologydictionary.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Nitrogen-fixing-nodules-in-the-roots-of-legumes-600x400.jpg 600w, https://biologydictionary.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Nitrogen-fixing-nodules-in-the-roots-of-legumes.jpg 640w" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; height: auto; margin: 0px 5px; max-width: 100%;" width="300" /></a></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Modern fertilizers are often made of artificial nitrates, like those compounds made by nitrogen fixing bacteria.</div> <h3 class="ftwp-heading" id="methanobacteria" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #029e00; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 22px; font-weight: 400; line-height: 30px; margin: 10px 0px 17px;"> Methanobacteria</h3> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Methanobacteria are actually archaeabacteria – but scientists began studying them long before they fully understood the differences between archaeabacteria and “true bacteria.”</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Both archaeabacteria and true bacteria are single-celled prokaryotes – which means they look pretty similar under the microscope. But modern methods of genetic and biochemical analysis have revealed that there are important chemical differences between the two, with archaeabacteria using many chemical compounds and possessing many genes not found in the bacteria <a href="https://biologydictionary.net/kingdom/" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0588bc;" title="kingdom">kingdom</a>.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> One of the abilities found in archaeabacteria that is not found in “true bacteria” is the metabolic process that creates methane. Only archaeabacteria species can combine carbon dioxide and hydrogen to produce methane.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> Methanobacteria live in a variety of environments – including inside your own body! Methanobacteria are found at the bottom of the ocean, in swamps and wetlands, in the stomachs of cows – and even inside human stomachs, where they break down some sugars we cannot digest in order to produce methane and energy.</div> <h2 class="ftwp-heading" id="related-biology-terms" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #029e00; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 27px; font-weight: 400; line-height: 38px; margin: 10px 0px 20px;"> Related Biology Terms</h2> <ul style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <li style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 21px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Archaeabacteria</span> – An ancient lineage of prokaryotes. Once thought to be a sub-type of bacteria, modern analysis has revealed that archaeabacteria are an entirely different lineage from modern bacteria.</li> <li style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 21px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Bacteria</span> – A modern kingdom of prokaryotes. Today, they are sometimes called “<a href="https://biologydictionary.net/eubacteria/" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0588bc;" title="eubacteria">eubacteria</a>” or “true bacteria” to differentiate them from archaeabacteria.</li> <li style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 21px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Electron transport chain</span> – A principle often used by cells to harvest energy from the environment. Electrons are passed through a series of proteins, which harvest their energy to produce life-giving molecules such as ATP.</li> </ul> <h2 class="ftwp-heading" id="quiz" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #029e00; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 27px; font-weight: 400; line-height: 38px; margin: 10px 0px 20px;"> Quiz</h2> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">1. Which of the following is NOT true of chemosynthesis?</span><br /> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">A.</span> It is the process of using energy from chemicals to create organic compounds.<br /> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">B.</span> It cannot be completed without energy from sunlight.<br /> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">C.</span> It uses an electron transport chain to extract energy from electrons.<br /> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">D.</span> It requires both a starting carbon compound, and a source of chemical energy.</div> <div class="su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-fancy su-spoiler-icon-chevron su-spoiler-closed" data-scroll-offset="0" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border-radius: 10px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; margin-bottom: 1.5em;"> <div class="su-spoiler-title" role="button" style="background: rgb(240, 240, 240); border-radius: 10px; border: none; box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; font-size: 0.9em; font-weight: 700; line-height: 20px; min-height: 20px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 34px; position: relative;" tabindex="0"> <span class="su-spoiler-icon" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: block; font-family: "shortcodesultimateicons"; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 400; height: 20px; left: 7px; line-height: 21px; position: absolute; text-align: center; top: 7px; width: 20px;"></span>Answer to Question #1</div> <div class="su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim" style="border-radius: 10px; border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: 0px; margin: 0px; opacity: 0; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; transition: all 0.2s ease 0s;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"></span></div> </div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">2. Which of the following is NOT true of the equation of chemosynthesis?</span><br /> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">A.</span> It requires a carbon-containing inorganic compound, such as carbon dioxide, on the reactant side.<br /> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">B.</span> It requires a source of chemical energy on the reactant side.<br /> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">C.</span> It ends with an organic molecule, such as a sugar, on the product side.<br /> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">D.</span> It ends with a transformed version of the chemical energy source on the product side.<br /> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">E.</span> None of the above.</div> <div class="su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-fancy su-spoiler-icon-chevron su-spoiler-closed" data-scroll-offset="0" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border-radius: 10px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; margin-bottom: 1.5em;"> <div class="su-spoiler-title" role="button" style="background: rgb(240, 240, 240); border-radius: 10px; border: none; box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; font-size: 0.9em; font-weight: 700; line-height: 20px; min-height: 20px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 34px; position: relative;" tabindex="0"> <span class="su-spoiler-icon" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: block; font-family: "shortcodesultimateicons"; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 400; height: 20px; left: 7px; line-height: 21px; position: absolute; text-align: center; top: 7px; width: 20px;"></span>Answer to Question #2</div> <div class="su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim" style="border-radius: 10px; border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: 0px; margin: 0px; opacity: 0; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; transition: all 0.2s ease 0s;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"></span></div> </div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">3. Which of the following is NOT a type of chemosynthetic bacteria?</span><br /> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">A.</span> Iron bacteria<br /> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">B.</span> Methane-producing bacteria<br /> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">C.</span> Sulfur bacteria<br /> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">D.</span> Nitrogen-fixing bacteria<br /> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">E.</span> None of the above.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> <br /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> <br /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;">Chemosynthesis is a metabolic pathway used by some bacteria to synthesize new organic compounds such as carbohydrates by using energy derived from the oxidation of inorganic molecules</span><span style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-family: "lucida sans unicode"; font-size: 18px;">—</span><a class="interlinked" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/chemistry/compounds-and-elements/hydrogen-sulfide" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #00529b; cursor: pointer; font-family: "noto serif jp", serif; font-size: 18px; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s;">hydrogen sulfide</a><span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;"> (H</span><span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 13.5px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span><span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;">S) or ammonia (NH</span><span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 13.5px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">3</span><span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;">). Chemosynthesis can occur in environments such as the deep ocean around </span><span style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px; font-weight: 700;">hydrothermal vents</span><span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;"> , where sunlight does not penetrate, but where </span><span style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px; font-weight: 700;">chemicals</span><span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;"> like </span><span style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px; font-weight: 700;">hydrogen</span><span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;"> sulfide are available. Chemosynthesis is also a critical part of the </span><span style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px; font-weight: 700;"><a class="interlinked" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/biology-and-genetics/environmental-studies/nitrogen-cycle" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #00529b; cursor: pointer; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s;">nitrogen cycle</a></span><span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;"> , where bacteria that live in the </span><span style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px; font-weight: 700;">soil</span><span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;"> , or in special plant structures called heterocysts, utilize ammonia for energy and produce </span><span style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px; font-weight: 700;">nitrates and nitrites</span><span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;"> which can subsequently be used as nutrients for plants. Some bacteria can also utilize hydrogen gas (H</span><span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 13.5px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span><span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;">) and </span><span style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px; font-weight: 700;"><a class="interlinked" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/chemistry/compounds-and-elements/carbon-dioxide" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #00529b; cursor: pointer; transition: all 0.3s ease 0s;">carbon dioxide</a></span><span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;"> (CO</span><span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 13.5px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span><span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;">) in a chemosynthetic pathway that results in the production of new organic compounds and </span><span style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px; font-weight: 700;">methane</span><span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;"> (CH</span><span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 13.5px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">4</span><span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;">).</span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #222222; font-family: tahoma, verdana, geneva; font-size: 17px; line-height: 31px; margin-bottom: 26px; overflow-wrap: break-word;"> <span style="color: #575757; font-family: "noto serif jp" , serif; font-size: 18px;"><br /></span></div> <h2 class="question" style="color: #000099; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Introduction</h2> <div style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 12px;"> The struggle for food is one of the most important and complex activities to occur in an ecosystem. To help simplify and understand the production and distribution of food within a community, scientists often construct a food web, a diagram that assigns species to generalized, interlinked feeding levels. Each layer of the web represents a particular role in the movement of organic energy through the community.</div> <div style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 12px;"> Despite their unusual nature, faunas based on chemosynthesis are tied together by food webs similar to those of better-known communities. The hydrothermal vent food web below has four layers:</div> <ul style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> <li style="margin: 0px 0px 8px;"><strong>Primary producers</strong> are the original source of food in the vent ecosystem, using chemical energy to create organic molecules. All other life depends on primary producers, and they have the greatest biomass in the community.</li> <li style="margin: 0px 0px 8px;"><strong>Primary consumers</strong> get their energy directly from the primary producers by eating or living symbiotically with them.</li> <li style="margin: 0px 0px 8px;"><strong>First order carnivores</strong> prey on the primary consumers and in turn are eaten by other animals.</li> <li style="margin: 0px 0px 8px;"><strong>Top order carnivores</strong> eat other consumers and carnivores but are rarely hunted by other creatures. Because they are separated from the primary food production by several layers, top order carnivores have the smallest biomass in the food web.</li> </ul> <h2 class="question" style="color: #000099; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Instructions</h2> <div style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 12px;"> You will reconstruct a hydrothermal vent fauna food web on the diagram below. Click on the name of each animal to bring up its photograph and description. Then drag the name to the appropriate web layer. Once you have filled in all the spots in the food web, click on the “Show Food Web” button to see how these animals interact.</div> </div> </div>

chemosynthesis food chain Chemosynthetic Food Chain

Chemosynthesis is the conversion of carbon compounds and other molecules into organic compounds. In this biochemical reaction, methane o...

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