Composting

Composting - an overview

Composting is the natural process of 'rotting' or decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms under controlled conditions. Raw organic materials such as crop residues, animal wastes, food garbage, some municipal wastes and suitable industrial wastes, enhance their suitability for application to the soil as a fertilizing resource, after having undergone composting.

A mass of rotted organic matter made from waste is called compost. The compost made from farm waste like sugarcane trash, paddy straw, weeds and other plants and other waste is called farm compost. The average nutrient contents of farm compost are 0.5 per cent N, 0.15 per cent P2O5and 0.5 per cent K2O. The nutrient value of farm compost can be increased by application of superphosphate or rock phosphate at 10 to 15 kg/t of raw material at the initial stage of filling the compost pit. The compost made from town refuses like night soil, street sweepings and dustbin refuse is called town compost. It contains 1.4 per cent N, 1.00 per cent P2O5 and 1.4 per cent K2O.

Farm compost is made by placing farm wastes in trenches of suitable size, say, 4.5 m to 5.0 m long, 1.5m to 2.0 m wide and 1.0 m to 2.0 m deep. Farm waste is placed in the trenches layer by layer. Each layer is well moistened by sprinkling cow dung slurry or water. Trenches are filled up to a height of 0.5 m above the ground. The compost is ready for application within five to six months.

Composting is essentially a microbiological decomposition of organic residues collected from rural area (rural compost) or urban area (urban compost).

Methods of composting

In Coimbatore method, composting is done in pits of different sizes depending on the waste material available. A layer of waste materials is first laid in the pit. It is moistened with a suspension of 5-10 kg cow dung in 2.5 to 5.0 I of water and 0.5 to 1.0 kg fine bone meal sprinkled over it uniformly. Similar layers are laid one over the other till the material rises 0.75 m above the ground level. It is finally plastered with wet mud and left undisturbed for 8 to 10 weeks. Plaster is then removed, material moistened with water, given a turning and made into a rectangular heap under a shade. It is left undisturbed till its use.

In the Indore method of composting, organic wastes are spread in the cattle shed to serve as bedding. Urine soaked material along with dung is removed every day and formed into a layer of about 15 cm thick at suitable sites. Urine soaked earth, scraped from cattle sheds is mixed with water and sprinkled over the layer of wastes twice or thrice a day. Layering process continued for about a fortnight. A thin layer of well decomposed compost is sprinkled over top and the heap given a turning and reformed. Old compost acts as inoculum for decomposing the material. The heap is left undisturbed for about a month. Then it is thoroughly moistened and given a turning. The compost is ready for application in another month.

In the Bangalore method of composting, dry waste material of 25 cm thick is spread in a pit and a thick suspension of cow dung in water is sprinkled over for moistening. A thin layer of dry waste is laid over the moistened layer. The pit is filled alternately with dry layers of material and cow dung suspension till it rises 0.5 m above ground level. It is left exposed without covering for 15 days. It is given a turning, plastered with wet mud and left undisturbed for about 5 months or till required.

In Coimbatore method, there is anaerobic decomposition to start with, following by aerobic fermentation. It is the reverse in Bangalore method. The Bangalore compost is not so thoroughly decomposed as the Indore compost or even as much as the Coimbatore compost, but it is bulkiest.

Compost is a rich source of organic matter. Soil organic matter plays an important role in sustaining soil fertility, and hence in sustainable agricultural production. In addition to being a source of plant nutrient, it improves the physico-chemical and biological properties of the soil. As a result of these improvements, the soil:

(i) becomes more resistant to stresses such as drought, diseases and toxicity;
(ii) helps the crop in improved uptake of plant nutrients; and
(iii) possesses an active nutrient cycling capacity because of vigorous microbial activity.

These advantages manifest themselves in reduced cropping risks, higher yields and lower outlays on inorganic fertilizers for farmers.

Dung and urine produced by animals per day

Animal	Urine (ml / kg live wt)	Quantity of dung (Kg) per day
Horse	3-18	9-18
Cattle	17-45	18-30
Buffaloes	20-45	25-40
Sheep and goats	10-40	1-2.5
Pigs	5-30	3-5
Poultry	-	2.5-3.5

Nutritive value of animal solid and liquid excreta

Animal	Dung (mg/g)			Urine (%)
Animal	N	P	K	N	P	K
Cattle	20-45	4-10	7-25	1.21	0.01	1.35
Sheep and goat	20-45	4-11	20-29	1.47	0.05	1.96
Pig	20-45	6-12	15-48	0.38	0.1	0.99
Poultry	28-62	9-26	8-29	-	-	-

Why composting is necessary?

The rejected biological materials contain complex chemical compounds such as lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, polysaccharides, proteins, lipids etc.
These complex materials cannot be used as such as resource materials.
The complex materials should be converted into simple inorganic element as available nutrient.
The material put into soil without conversion will undergo conversion inside the soil.
This conversion process take away all energy and available nutrients from the soil affecting the crop.
Hence conversion period is mandatory.

Advantages of Composting

Volume reduction of waste.
Final weight of compost is very less.
Composting temperature kill pathogen, weed seeds and seeds.
Matured compost comes into equilibrium with the soil.
During composting number of wastes from several sources are blended together.
Excellent soil conditioner
Saleable product
Improves manure handling
Redues the risk of pollution
Pathogen reduction
Additional revenue.
Suppress plant diseases and pests.
Reduce or eliminate the need for chemical fertilizers.
Promote higher yields of agricultural crops.
Facilitate reforestation, wetlands restoration, and habitat revitalization efforts by amending contaminated, compacted, and marginal soils.
Cost-effectively remediate soils contaminated by hazardous waste.
Remove solids, oil, grease, and heavy metals from stormwater runoff.
Capture and destroy 99.6 percent of industrial volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) in contaminated air.
Provide cost savings of at least 50 percent over conventional soil, water, and air pollution remediation technologies, where applicable.

Drawbacks of Using Composts
Agricultural use of composts remains low for several reasons:

The product is weighty and bulky, making it expensive to transport.
The nutrient value of compost is low compared with that of chemical fertilizers, and the rate of nutrient release is slow so that it cannot usually meet the nutrient requirement of crops in a short time, thus resulting in some nutrient deficiency
The nutrient composition of compost is highly variable compared to chemical fertilizers.
Agricultural users might have concerns regarding potential levels of heavy metals and other possible contaminants in compost, particularly mixed municipal solid wastes. The potential for contamination becomes an important issue when compost is used on food crops.
Long-term and/or heavy application of composts to agricultural soils has been found to result in salt, nutrient, or heavy metal accumulation and may adversely affect plant growth, soil organisms, water quality, and animal and human health

Composting organic materials with high lignin content - lime treatment

By adding organic wastes such as sawdust, wood shavings, coir pith, pine needles, and dry fallen leaves, while preparing organic waste mixtures for composting, one can ensure that the compost produced contains sufficient and long-lasting humus. However, gardeners often find that where they use lignin-rich plant materials, the compost does not ripen rapidly. A technique for making good compost from hard plant materials involves mixing lime in a ratio of 5 kg per 1000 kg of waste material. Lime can be applied as dry powder or after mixing with a sufficient quantity of water. Treatment with lime enhances the process of decomposition of hard materials.
Liming can enhance the humification process in plant residues by enhancing microbial population and activity and by weakening lignin structure. It also improves the humus quality by changing the ratio of humic to fulvic acids and decreases the amount of bitumen, which interferes with the decomposition process. Instead of lime, powdered phosphate rock can be used in a ratio of 20 kg per 1 000 kg of organic waste. Phosphate rock contains a lot of lime. The phosphates and micronutrients contained in phosphate rock make composts rich in plant nutrients.

Composting weeds

This method has been developed for composting weeds such as parthenium, water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), cyperus (Cyperus rotundus) and cynodon (Cynodon dactylon).

Materials Required

250 g of Trichoderma viride and Pleurotus sajor-caju consortia, and 5 kg of urea. An elevated shaded place is selected, or a thatched shed is erected. An area of 500 cm × 150 cm is marked out. The material to be composted is cut to 10-15 cm in size. About 100 kg of cut material is spread over the marked area. About 50 g of microbial consortia is sprinkled over this layer. About 100 kg of weeds are spread on this layer. One kilogram of urea is sprinkled uniformly over the layer. This process is repeated until the level rises to 1 m. Water is sprinkled as necessary to maintain a moisture level of 50-60 percent. Thereafter, the surface of the heap is covered with a thin layer of soil. The pile requires a thorough turning on the twenty-first day. The compost is ready in about 40 days.

Compost enrichment

Farm compost is poor in P content (0.4-0.8 percent). Addition of P makes the compost more balanced, and supplies nutrient to micro-organisms for their multiplication and faster decomposition. The addition of P also reduces N losses. Compost can be enriched by:

Application of superphosphate, bonemeal or phosphate rock: 1 kg of superphosphate or bonemeal is applied over each layer of animal dung. Low-grade phosphate rock can also be used for this purpose.
Use of animal bones: these can be broken into small pieces, boiled with wood ash leachate or lime water and drained, and the residue applied to the pits. This procedure of boiling bones facilitates their disintegration. Even the addition of raw bones, broken into small pieces and added to the pit, improves the nutrient value of compost significantly.
Wood ash waste can also be added to increase the K content of compost.
Addition of N-fixing and P-solubilizing cultures (IARI, 1989): The quality of compost can be further improved by the secondary inoculation of Azotobacter, Azospirillum lipoferum, and Azospirillum brasilence (N-fixers); and Bacillus megaterium or Pseudomonas sp. (P solubilizers). These organisms, in the form of culture broth or water suspension of biofertilizer products, can be sprinkled when the decomposing material is turned after one month. By this time, the temperature of the compost has also stabilized at about 35 °C. As a result of this inoculation, the N content of straw compost can be increased by up to 2 percent. In addition to improving N content and the availability of other plant nutrients, these additions help to reduce the composting time considerably.

The Benefits of Using Composts to Agriculture

Compost has been considered as a valuable soil amendment for centuries. Most people are aware that using composts is an effective way to increase healthy plant production, help save money, reduce the use of chemical fertilizers, and conserve natural resources. Compost provides a stable organic matter that improves the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils, thereby enhancing soil quality and crop production. When correctly applied, compost has the following beneficial effects on soil properties, thus creating suitable conditions for root development and consequently promoting higher yield and higher quality of crops.

Improves the Physical Properties of Soils

Reduces the soil bulk density and improves the soil structure directly by loosening heavy soils with organic matter, and indirectly by means of aggregate-stabilizing humus contained in composts. Incorporating composts into compacted soils improves root penetration and turf establishment.
Increases the water-holding capacity of the soil directly by binding water to organic matter, and indirectly by improving the soil structure, thus improving the absorption and movement of water into the soil. Therefore, water requirement and irrigation will be reduced.
Protects the surface soil from water and wind erosion by reducing the soil-dispersion action of beating raindrops, increasing infiltration, reducing water runoff, and increasing surface wetness. Preventing erosion is essential for protecting waterways and maintaining the quality and productivity of the soil.
Helps bind the soil particles into crumbs by the fungi or actinomycetes mycelia contained in the compost and stimulated in the soil by its application, generally increasing the stability of the soil against wind and water erosion.
Improves soil aeration and thus supplies enough oxygen to the roots and escapes excess carbon dioxide from the root space.
Increases the soil temperature directly by its dark color, which increases heat absorption by the soil, and indirectly by the improved soil structure.
Helps moderate soil temperature and prevents rapid fluctuations of soil temperature, hence, providing a better environment for root growth. This is especially true of compost used as a surface mulch.

Enhances the Chemical Properties of Soils

Enables soils to hold more plant nutrients and increases the cation exchange capacity (CEC), anion exchange capacity (AEC), and buffering capacity of soils for longer periods of time after composts are applied to soils. This is important mainly for soils containing little clay and organic matter.
Builds up nutrients in the soil. Composts contain the major nutrients required by all plants [N,P,K, calcium (Ca), magnesium(Mg), and S] plus essential micronutrients or trace elements, such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), and molybdenum (Mb).
The nutrients from mature composts are released to the plants slowly and steadily. The benefits will last for more than one season.
Stabilizes the volatile nitrogen of raw materials into large protein particles during composting, thereby reducing N losses.
Provides active agents, such as growth substances, which may be beneficial mainly to germinating plants.
Adds organic matter and humus to regenerate poor soils.
Buffers the soil against rapid changes due to acidity, alkalinity, salinity, pesticides, and toxic heavy metals.

Improves the Biological Properties of Soils

Supplies food and encourages the growth of beneficial microorganisms and earthworms.
Helps suppress certain plant diseases, soil borne diseases, and parasites.
Research has shown that composts can help control plant diseases (e.g. Pythium root rot, Rhizoctonia root rot, chili wilt, and parasitic nematode) and reduce crop losses. A major California fruit and vegetable grower was able to cut pesticide use by 80% after three years of compost applications as part of an organic matter management system. Research has also indicated that some composts, particularly those prepared from tree barks, release chemicals that inhibit some plant pathogens. Disease control with compost has been attributed to four possible mechanisms:
1) successful competition for nutrients by beneficial microorganisms;
2) antibiotic production by beneficial microorganisms;
3) successful predation against pathogens by beneficial microorganisms;
4) activation of disease-resistant genes in plants by composts; and
5) high temperatures that result from composting kill pathogens.
Reduces and kills weed seeds by a combination of factors including the heat of the compost pile, rotting, and premature germination.

Economic and Social Benefits of Composting

The economic and social benefits of composting include the following:

Brings higher prices for organically grown crops.
Composting can offer several potential economic benefits to communities:
Extends current landfill longevity and delays the construction of a more expensive replacement landfill or incinerator.
Reduces or avoids landfill or combustor tipping fees, and reduces waste disposal fees and long-distance transportation costs.
Offers environmental benefits from reduced landfill and combustion use.
Creates new jobs for citizens.
Produces marketable products and a less-cost alternative to standard landfill cover, artificial soil amendments, and conventional bioremediation techniques.
Provides a source of plant nutrients and improves soil fertility; results in significant cost savings by reducing the need for water, pesticides, fungicides, herbicides, and nematodes.
Used as an alternative to natural topsoil in new construction, landscape renovations, and container gardens. Using composts in these types of applications is not only less expensive than purchasing topsoil, but it can also often produce better results when establishing a healthy vegetative cover.
Used as mulch for trees, orchards, landscapes, lawns, gardens, and makes an excellent potting mix. Placed over the roots of plants, compost mulch conserves water and stabilizes soil temperatures. In addition, it keeps plants healthy by controlling weeds, providing a slow release of nutrients, and preventing soil loss through erosion.

Making organic compost

Making compost presents the gardener with an economic and easy way to recycle disease-free garden, kitchen and general waste. Nowadays there are many ways in which organic compost can be made. Commercially available you get compost equipment like compost drums, compost turners, compost aerators, compost makers, compost containers, compost barrels, and compost tumblers. However, since we are making the assumption that we are gardening on a shoestring budget our compost recipe for making compost will not require these, sometimes expensive, compost equipment. Instead our organic compost recipe willshow you how to make compost using a compost heap. Organic compost can be made in many ways and this compost recipe will be a guideline only.

The ingredients for making compost

The most suitable materials for composting are all organic materials that will rot or decay easily. These materials will include:

Garden waste: non-woody garden prunings, grass cuttings, leaves, flowers, and vegetable remains.
Kitchen waste: vegetable peels and leaves, fruit peels and cores, nutshells, cooked table scraps, tea leaves, egg shells, even stale bread.
General waste: torn-up newspaper and cardboard boxes, sawdust and wood-shavings, animal manure, wood-fire ash, and kelp or seaweed.

Unsuitable materials, albeit organic, for the compost heap will be materials such as garden waste that has been treated with pesticides, kikuyu grass, woody garden clippings, pine needles, rose cuttings and other cuttings with thorns, bulbs, seeds, runners, toilet waste or septic tank sludge, diseased animal carcasses and diseased plants, as well as materials such as metals, glass and plastic as they do not decompose easily. (Tip: Avoid using the same type of organic matter, for example just grass clippings from the lawn or leaves alone because it has a tendency to form a mat with poor aeration.)

Building the compost heap

Depending on the amount of compost that you want to make, we recommend digging a trench into the ground approximately 2 meters by 2 meters.
Mix the organic materials well and chop up any big pieces.
Put down about 10 cm of mixed organic material. Start with carbon materials such as wood-shavings and twigs, follow this by a layer of nitrogenous material like grass clippings and leaves.
Add a compost activator to speed up the decomposition process. Commercial compost activators are available at garden centers and reputable nurseries. Alternatively you may use a bucketful of mature compost, animal manure, or bone meal as these work the same as compost activators. (Compost activators are micro-organisms that break down the organic matter.)
You can also add garden soil to the growing heap. Garden soil contains many organisms that will multiply and help the rotting process. Garden soil also contains useful nematodes such as earthworms. Earthworms are valuable members of the compost heap community. They eat plant material and produce worm castes that are very rich in nutrients. They also help to mix the compost ingredients and put air into the heap thereby speeding up the process of decay.
Repeat the layering of the compost heap in 10 cm increments. (Tip: The last layer should be garden soil, dry grass, leaves, or sawdust, as this will keep smells in and not attract flies.)

Turning the compost heap

When approximately one week has passed, push your hand into the compost heap and you will feel the heat generated by the decomposition process. After a few weeks the compost heap will have cooled down. This cooled down compost heap means that you need to turn the compost heap so as to allow it to heat up again. The heat will kill weed seeds and fly larvae. (Tip: Make use of a compost thermometer. These are available from garden centers and nurseries.)

To speed up the compost formation in the compost heap it should be turned. Turning encourages decomposition. The time between 'turnings' of the heap depends on the speed at which decomposition takes place, and this in turn depends on the ingredients in the heap, and the weather. The correct temperature range is necessary for composting. The rate of decomposition is much faster during the hot and humid summer months.

Watering the compost heap

Organisms require oxygen and moisture to decompose organic matter. So keep the heap moist, but not water-logged as this inhibits decomposition and will make the compost smell. If it does get too wet, add absorbent material such as sawdust, straw, or manure, and turn the heap. A badly aerated compost heap has an unpleasant smell and it is thus necessary to turn the heap over every two to three weeks to help with aeration. (Tip: The compost heap should be damp, not soggy.)

Controlling pests on the compost heap

A correctly cared for compost heap should not create fly, rat or mouse problems in the garden. Flies can be controlled in a compost heap by immediately covering new material with dry soil, sawdust, grass or leaves. Since flies breed in compost, it is necessary to turn the compost heap frequently so that enough heat is generated to destroy fly eggs and pupae. If you do find large white worms in the compost, destroy them. They are the larvae of the large black and yellow fruit beetle which does much damage in the garden.

Do not add meat scraps to the compost as this will attract rats and mice.

Do not use any poisons such as insecticides to control pests as these will stop the decomposition process by killing the organisms responsible for decomposition, e.g. fungi, earthworms, bacteria.

Troubleshooting the compost heap

Making compost is really quite easy, but having too much of a certain material or letting the compost get too wet or too dry can cause problems.

The compost heap is damp and warm in the middle only

This could be the case if the compost heap is too small, or the weather might be too cold and composting is this slowed down. Ensure that your compost heap is at least 1 meter high and 1 meter wide (1 meter equals approximately 3 feet.) The compost heap may be smaller if you make use of a compost bin.

The compost heap is stagnant; it does not heat up at all

There are several reasons why the compost heap can appear stagnant. Insufficient nitrogen, insufficient oxygen, insufficient moisture, cold weather, or simply the compost is finished. In the case of insufficient nitrogen you should make sure that you have enough nitrogen rich sources like manure, grass clippings or food scraps. In case of insufficient oxygen you should mix up the compost heap so as to allow it to breathe. In the case of insufficient moisture you should mix up the compost heap and water it to introduce some moisture into the compost heap as a dry heap will not compost. In the case of cold weather it is advisable to wait for spring, cover the heap or make use of a compost bin.

The matted leaves and grass clippings do not decompose

The main reason would be that there is poor aeration of lack of moisture in the compost heap. Address the situation by avoiding thick layers of just one type of material. Break up the layers and mix up the compost heap so that the materials mix. Do shred the big materials that are not breaking down well.

The compost heap stinks like vinegar or rotten egg

The main reason for a stinking compost heap could be that there is insufficient oxygen or the compost heap is too wet or compacted. Aerate the compost heap by mixing it up to enable the compost heap to breathe. If the problem is caused by too much moisture then add dry materials such as straw, hay or leaves to soak up all the excess moisture. If the smell is too bad then add dry materials on top of the compost heap and wait till it dries out before attempting to mix up the compost heap.

The compost heap smells like ammonia

The ammonia smell is caused by insufficient carbon. Remedy the situation by adding brown materials such as leaves, straw, hay, shredded or torn-up newspaper, etc.

The compost heap is attracting rats, mice, flies, etc

These animals can be attracted by the addition of inappropriate materials to the compost heap. These materials include items like meat, oil, and bones. Else it can be a situation where the food-like materials are too close to the surface of the compost heap. You should bury kitchen scraps near the center of the compost heap. You also should not add inappropriate materials to the compost heap. Alternatively you can make use of a rodent-proof closed compost bin.

There are fire ants in the compost heap

Fire ants can make their appearance if the compost heap is too dry, or not hot enough, or the kitchen scraps are too close to the surface of the compost heap. You should make sure that the compost heap has a good mixture that will heat up and you should keep the compost heap moist.

The compost heap attracts insects, millipedes, slugs, etc

This is a normal situation and part of the natural process of composting. This is not problematic.

How to compost your garden

Compost is mature and ready to use when it looks crumbly and has an earthy smell. It can then be dug into the top-soil of garden beds or spread as a mulch under trees and bushes. Compost also makes a very good potting soil mixture for houseplants or seedling trays. (Tip: Under ideal conditions your compost should be ready after six weeks.) The following are the recommended ways in which to use organic compost.

For bed preparation: – the most beneficial way of adding organic compost to the garden is to add it into the flower bed prior to planting. You should dig over the garden soil. (Tip: Dig the soil to a depth of about 60 cm, or two spade depths.) Remove root and rubble. Work the compost into the soil at a ratio of 1 to 2 parts compost to 3 parts of garden soil. (In other words 30-50% compost per soil area.) Add super-phosphate, hoof- and horn meal or bone meal at the same time so as to stimulate root growth. If you prepare whole beds, the new plants will establish much quicker and evenly.
For individual planting: – you will require a well-prepared hole if you wish to plant in established beds, or in areas where there is already lawn or paving. Make the whole as large as possible and place the soil to one side. Add 1 part compost and 2 parts of the soil, and the required fertilizer (depending on the plants) and mix. Use this mixture to fill the hole and spread the rest of the mixture around your new plant. (Tip: Do not place a layer of compost at the bottom of the hole as it may cause root burn.
For potting and bagging purposes: – making your own potting soil is easy. All that is required is adding a measly 30% compost to soil. Too much compost will be too rich and might cause root burn or hold too much water.
For soil enhancement purposes after planting: – soil amendments have to be made on a regular basis to keep plants healthy. Soil amendment is best made by placing a layer of compost approximately 10 cm thick over the flower bed and working it into the soil with a garden fork. Many people opt to use their mulch from the last season in this fashion and then add a new layer for the new season.

Compost (/ˈkɒmpɒst/ or /ˈkɒmpoʊst/) is organic matter that has been decomposed in a process called composting. This process recycles various organic materials otherwise regarded as waste products and produces a soil conditioner (the compost).

Compost is rich in nutrients. It is used, for example, in gardens, landscaping, horticulture, urban agriculture and organic farming. The compost itself is beneficial for the land in many ways, including as a soil conditioner, a fertilizer, addition of vital humus or humic acids, and as a natural pesticide for soil. In ecosystems, compost is useful for erosion control, land and stream reclamation, wetland construction, and as landfill cover (see compost uses).

At the simplest level, the process of composting requires making a heap of wet organic matter (also called green waste), such as leaves, grass, and food scraps, and waiting for the materials to break down into humus after a period of months. However, composting also can take place as a multi-step, closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air, and carbon- and nitrogen-rich materials. The decomposition process is aided by shredding the plant matter, adding water and ensuring proper aeration by regularly turning the mixture when open piles or "windrows" are used. fungi, earthworms and other detritivores further break up the material. Bacteria requiring oxygen to function (aerobic bacteria) and fungi manage the chemical process by converting the inputs into heat, carbon dioxide, and ammonium.

Fundamentals[edit]

Home compost barrel

Materials in a compost pile

Food scraps compost heap

Composting is an aerobic method (meaning that it requires the presence of air) of decomposing organic solid wastes.^[1] It can therefore be used to recycle organic material. The process involves decomposition of organic material into a humus-like material, known as compost, which is a good fertilizer for plants. Composting requires the following three components: human management, aerobic conditions, development of internal biological heat.

Composting organisms require four equally important ingredients to work effectively:

Carbon — for energy; the microbial oxidation of carbon produces the heat, if included at suggested levels.^[2] High carbon materials tend to be brown and dry.
Nitrogen — to grow and reproduce more organisms to oxidize the carbon. High nitrogen materials tend to be green (or colorful, such as fruits and vegetables) and wet.
Oxygen — for oxidizing the carbon, the decomposition process.
Water — in the right amounts to maintain activity without causing anaerobic conditions.^[3]

Certain ratios of these materials will provide microorganisms to work at a rate that will heat up the pile. Active management of the pile (e.g. turning) is needed to maintain sufficient supply of oxygen and the right moisture level. The air/water balance is critical to maintaining high temperatures 130–160 °F (54–71 °C) until the materials are broken down.^[4]

The most efficient composting occurs with an optimal carbon:nitrogen ratio of about 25:1.^[5] Hot container composting focuses on retaining the heat to increase decomposition rate and produce compost more quickly. Rapid composting is favored by having a C/N ratio of ~30 or less. Above 30 the substrate is nitrogen starved, below 15 it is likely to outgas a portion of nitrogen as ammonia.^[6]

Nearly all plant and animal materials have both carbon and nitrogen, but amounts vary widely, with characteristics noted above (dry/wet, brown/green).^[7] Fresh grass clippings have an average ratio of about 15:1 and dry autumn leaves about 50:1 depending on species. Mixing equal parts by volume approximates the ideal C:N range. Few individual situations will provide the ideal mix of materials at any point. Observation of amounts, and consideration of different materials as a pile is built over time, can quickly achieve a workable technique for the individual situation.

Microorganisms[edit]

With the proper mixture of water, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen, micro-organisms are able to break down organic matter to produce compost.^[8]^[9] The composting process is dependent on micro-organisms to break down organic matter into compost. There are many types of microorganisms found in active compost of which the most common are:^[10]

Bacteria- The most numerous of all the microorganisms found in compost. Depending on the phase of composting, mesophilic or thermophilic bacteria may predominate.
Actinobacteria- Necessary for breaking down paper products such as newspaper, bark, etc.
Fungi- molds and yeast help break down materials that bacteria cannot, especially lignin in woody material.
Protozoa- Help consume bacteria, fungi and micro organic particulates.
Rotifers- Rotifers help control populations of bacteria and small protozoans.

In addition, earthworms not only ingest partly composted material, but also continually re-create aeration and drainage tunnels as they move through the compost.

Phases of composting[edit]

Three years old household compost

Under ideal conditions, composting proceeds through three major phases:^[10]

An initial, mesophilic phase, in which the decomposition is carried out under moderate temperatures by mesophilic microorganisms.
As the temperature rises, a second, thermophilic phase starts, in which the decomposition is carried out by various thermophilic bacteria under high temperatures.
As the supply of high-energy compounds dwindles, the temperature starts to decrease, and the mesophiles once again predominate in the maturation phase.

Slow and rapid composting[edit]

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There are many proponents of rapid composting that attempt to correct some of the perceived problems associated with traditional, slow composting. Many advocate that compost can be made in 2 to 3 weeks.^[11] Many such short processes involve a few changes to traditional methods, including smaller, more homogenized pieces in the compost, controlling carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N) at 30 to 1 or less, and monitoring the moisture level more carefully. However, none of these parameters differ significantly from the early writings of compost researchers, suggesting that in fact modern composting has not made significant advances over the traditional methods that take a few months to work. For this reason and others, many scientists who deal with carbon transformations are sceptical that there is a "super-charged" way to get nature to make compost rapidly.^{[citation needed]}

Both sides may be right to some extent. The bacterial activity in rapid high heat methods breaks down the material to the extent that pathogens and seeds are destroyed, and the original feedstock is unrecognizable. At this stage, the compost can be used to prepare fields or other planting areas. However, most professionals recommend that the compost be given time to cure before using in a nursery for starting seeds or growing young plants. The curing time allows fungi to continue the decomposition process and eliminating phytotoxicsubstances.^{[citation needed]}

An alternative approach is anaerobic fermentation, known as bokashi. It retains carbon bonds, is faster than decomposition, and for application to soil requires only rapid but thorough aeration rather than curing. It depends on sufficient carbohydrates in the treated material.

Pathogen removal[edit]

Composting can destroy pathogens or unwanted seeds. Unwanted living plants (or weeds) can be discouraged by covering with mulch/compost. The "microbial pesticides" in compost may include thermophiles and mesophiles.

Thermophilic (high-temperature) composting is well known to destroy many seeds and nearly all types of pathogens (exceptions may include prions). The sanitizing qualities of (thermophilic) composting are desirable where there is a high likelihood of pathogens, such as with manure.

Materials that can be composted[edit]

Composting is a process used for resource recovery. It can recycle an unwanted by-product from another process (a waste) into a useful new product.

Organic solid waste (green waste)[edit]

A large compost pile that is steaming with the heat generated by thermophilic microorganisms.

Composting is a process for converting decomposable organic materials into useful stable products. Therefore, valuable landfill space can be used for other wastes by composting these materials rather than dumping them on landfills. It may however be difficult to control inert and plastics contamination from municipal solid waste.

Co-composting is a technique that processes organic solid waste together with other input materials such as dewatered fecal sludge or sewage sludge.^[5]

Industrial composting systems are being installed to treat organic solid waste and recycle it rather than landfilling it. It is one example of an advanced waste processing system. Mechanical sorting of mixed waste streams combined with anaerobic digestion or in-vessel composting is called mechanical biological treatment. It is increasingly being used in developed countries due to regulations controlling the amount of organic matter allowed in landfills. Treating biodegradable waste before it enters a landfill reduces global warming from fugitive methane; untreated waste breaks down anaerobically in a landfill, producing landfill gas that contains methane, a potent greenhouse gas.

Animal manure and bedding[edit]

On many farms, the basic composting ingredients are animal manure generated on the farm and bedding. Straw and sawdust are common bedding materials. Non-traditional bedding materials are also used, including newspaper and chopped cardboard. The amount of manure composted on a livestock farm is often determined by cleaning schedules, land availability, and weather conditions. Each type of manure has its own physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Cattle and horse manures, when mixed with bedding, possess good qualities for composting. Swine manure, which is very wet and usually not mixed with bedding material, must be mixed with straw or similar raw materials. Poultry manure also must be blended with carbonaceous materials - those low in nitrogen preferred, such as sawdust or straw.^[12]

Human waste and sewage sludge[edit]

Human waste can be added as an input to the composting process since human excreta is a nitrogen-rich organic material. It can be either composted directly, as in composting toilets, or indirectly (as sewage sludge), after it has undergone treatment in a sewage treatment plant. Faeces contain a wide range of microorganisms including bacteria, viruses and parasitic worms and its use in home composting can pose significant health risks.^[13]

Urine can be put on compost piles or directly used as fertilizer.^[14] Adding urine to compost can increase temperatures and therefore increase its ability to destroy pathogens and unwanted seeds. Unlike feces, urine does not attract disease-spreading flies (such as houseflies or blowflies), and it does not contain the most hardy of pathogens, such as parasitic worm eggs. Urine usually does not smell for long, particularly when it is fresh, diluted, or put on sorbents. ^[15]

Uses[edit]

Compost can be used as an additive to soil, or other matrices such as coir and peat, as a tilth improver, supplying humus and nutrients. It provides a rich growing medium, or a porous, absorbent material that holds moisture and soluble minerals, providing the support and nutrients in which plants can flourish, although it is rarely used alone, being primarily mixed with soil, sand, grit, bark chips, vermiculite, perlite, or clay granules to produce loam. Compost can be tilled directly into the soil or growing medium to boost the level of organic matter and the overall fertility of the soil. Compost that is ready to be used as an additive is dark brown or even black with an earthy smell.^[16]

Generally, direct seeding into a compost is not recommended due to the speed with which it may dry and the possible presence of phytotoxins in immature compost that may inhibit germination,^[17]^[18]^[19] and the possible tie up of nitrogen by incompletely decomposed lignin.^[20] It is very common to see blends of 20–30% compost used for transplanting seedlingsat cotyledon stage or later.

Compost can be used to increase plant immunity to diseases and pests.^[21]

Composting technologies[edit]

Various approaches have been developed to handle different ingredients, locations, throughput and applications for the composted product.

Industrial-scale[edit]

Industrial-scale composting can be carried out in the form of in-vessel composting, aerated static pile composting, vermicomposting, or windrow composting.^{[citation needed]}

Vermicomposting[edit]

Worms in a bin being harvested

Vermicompost is the product or process of organic material degradation using various species of worms, usually red wigglers, white worms, and earthworms, to create a heterogeneous mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste (excluding meat, dairy, fats, or oils), bedding materials, and vermicast. Vermicast, also known as worm castings, worm humus or worm manure, is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by species of earthworm.^[22]

Vermicomposting can also be applied for treatment of sewage sludge.^[23]

Composting toilets[edit]

Composting toilet with a seal in the lid in Germany

A composting toilet collects human excreta. These are added to a compost heap that can be located in a chamber below the toilet seat. Sawdust and straw or other carbon rich materials are usually added as well. Some composting toilets do not require water or electricity; others may. If they do not use water for flushing they fall into the category of dry toilets. Some composting toilet designs use urine diversion, others do not. When properly managed, they do not smell. The composting process in these toilets destroys pathogens to some extent. The amount of pathogen destruction depends on the temperature (mesophilic or thermophilic conditions) and composting time.^[24]

Composting toilets with a large composting container (of the type Clivus Multrum and derivations of it) are popular in United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Sweden. They are available as commercial products, as designs for self builders or as "design derivatives" which are marketed under various names.

Black soldier fly larvae[edit]

Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae are able to rapidly consume large amounts of organic material when kept at around 30 °C.^[25]^[26] Black soldier fly larvae can reduce the dry matter of the organic waste by 73% and convert 16–22% of the dry matter in the waste to biomass.^[27]^[28] The resulting compost still contains nutrients and can be used for biogas production, or further traditional composting or vermicomposting ^[29] The larvae are rich in fat and protein, and can be used as, for example, animal feed or biodiesel production.^[30] Enthusiasts have experimented with a large number of different waste products.^[31]

Bokashi[edit]

Bokashi is not composting as defined earlier, rather an alternative technology. It ferments (rather than decomposes) the input organic matter and feeds the result to the soil food web(rather than producing a soil conditioner). The process involves adding Lactobacilli to the input in an airtight container kept at normal room temperature. These bacteria ferment carbohydrates to lactic acid, which preserves the input. After this is complete the preserve is mixed into soil, converting the lactic acid to pyruvate, which enables soil life to consume the result.

Bokashi is typically applied to food waste from households, workplaces and catering establishments, because such waste normally holds a good proportion of carbohydrates; it is also applied to other organic waste by supplementing carbohydrates. Household containers ("bokashi bins") typically give a batch size of 5–10 kilograms (11–22 lb), accumulated over a few weeks. In horticultural settings batches can be orders of magnitude greater.

Inside a recently started bokashi bin. Food scraps are raised on a perforated plate (to drain runoff) and are partly covered by a layer of bran inoculated with Lactobacilli

Bokashi offers several advantages:

Fermentation retains all the original carbon and energy. (In comparison, composting loses at least 50% of these and 75% or more in amateur use; composting also loses nitrogen, a macronutrient of plants, by emitting ammonia and the potent greenhouse gas nitrous oxide.)^[32]
Virtually the full range of food waste is accepted, without the exclusions of composting. The exception is large bones.
Being airtight, the container inherently traps smells, and when opened the smell of fermentation is far less offensive than decomposition. Hence bokashi bins usually operate indoors, in or near kitchens.
Similarly the container neither attracts insect pests nor allows them ingress.
The process is inherently hygienic because lactic acid is a natural bactericide and anti-pathogen; even its own fermentation is self-limiting.
Both preservation and consumption complete within a few weeks rather than months.
The preserve can be stored until needed, for example if ground is frozen or waterlogged.
The increased activity of the soil food web improves the soil texture, especially by worm action - in effect this is in-soil vermicomposting.

The importance of the first advantage should not be underestimated: the mass of any ecosystem depends on the energy it captures. Plants depend upon the soil ecosystem making nutrients available within soil water. Therefore, the richer the ecosystem, the richer the plants. (Plants can also take up nutrients from added chemicals, but these are at odds with the purpose of composting).

Other systems at household level[edit]

Hügelkultur (raised garden beds or mounds)[edit]

An almost completed Hügelkultur bed; the bed does not have soil on it yet.

The practice of making raised garden beds or mounds filled with rotting wood is also called hügelkultur in German.^[33]^[34] It is in effect creating a nurse log that is covered with soil.

Benefits of hügelkultur garden beds include water retention and warming of soil.^[33]^[35] Buried wood acts like a sponge as it decomposes, able to capture water and store it for later use by crops planted on top of the hügelkultur bed.^[33]^[36]

Compost tea[edit]

Compost teas are defined as water extracts leached from composted materials.^[37] Compost teas are generally produced from adding one volume of compost to 4–10 volumes of water, but there has also been debate about the benefits of aerating the mixture.^[37] Field studies have shown the benefits of adding compost teas to crops due to the adding of organic matter, increased nutrient availability and increased microbial activity.^[37] They have also been shown to have an effect on plant pathogens.^[38]

Worm Hotels[edit]

Worm Hotel in Amsterdam

Worm Hotels accommodate useful worm in ideal conditions.

    Earthgenuity

    Earthgenuity is a residential composting system. It consists of a cylinder-shaped tube which serves as the kitchen's waste bin, typically placed near the regular garbage bin. The second part of the Earthgenuity system is the Phase 1 Bin. The final component is using devices called Earth Grids, where waste has an ideal habitat to decompose and is also already in position to join the natural terrain.

Related technologies[edit]

Organic ingredients intended for composting can also be used to generate biogas through anaerobic digestion. This process stabilizes organic material. The residual material, sometimes in combination with sewage sludge can be treated by a composting process before selling or giving away the compost.^{[citation needed]}

Regulations[edit]

There are process and product guidelines in Europe that date to the early 1980s (Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland) and only more recently in the UK and the US. In both these countries, private trade associations within the industry have established loose standards, some say as a stop-gap measure to discourage independent government agencies from establishing tougher consumer-friendly standards.^[39]

The USA is the only Western country that does not distinguish sludge-source compost from green-composts, and by default in the USA 50% of states expect composts to comply in some manner with the federal EPA 503 rule promulgated in 1984 for sludge products.^[40]

Compost is regulated in Canada^[41] and Australia^[42] as well.

Many countries such as Wales^[43]^[44] and some individual cities such as Seattle and San Francisco require food and yard waste to be sorted for composting (San Francisco Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance).^[45]^[46]

Examples[edit]

Edmonton Composting Facility

Large-scale composting systems are used by many urban areas around the world.

The world's largest municipal co-composter for municipal solid waste (MSW) is the Edmonton Composting Facility in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, which turns 220,000 tonnes of municipal solid waste and 22,500 dry tonnes of sewage sludge per year into 80,000 tonnes of compost. The facility is 38,690 m² (416,500 sq ft) in area, equivalent to 4½ Canadian football fields, and the operating structure is the largest stainless steel building in North America.^{[citation needed]}
In 2006, Qatar awarded Keppel Seghers Singapore, a subsidiary of Keppel Corporation, a contract to begin construction on a 275,000 tonne/year anaerobic digestion and composting plant licensed by Kompogas Switzerland. This plant, with 15 independent anaerobic digesters, will be the world's largest composting facility once fully operational in early 2011 and forms part of Qatar's Domestic Solid Waste Management Centre, the largest integrated waste management complex in the Middle East.^{[citation needed]}
Another large municipal solid waste composter is the Lahore Composting Facility in Lahore, Pakistan, which has a capacity to convert 1,000 tonnes of municipal solid waste per day into compost. It also has a capacity to convert substantial portion of the intake into refuse-derived fuel (RDF) materials for further combustion use in several energy consuming industries across Pakistan, for example in cement manufacturing companies where it is used to heat cement kilns. This project has also been approved by the Executive Board of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for reducing methane emissions, and has been registered with a capacity of reducing 108,686 tonnes carbon dioxide equivalent per annum.^[47]
Kew Gardens in London has one of the biggest non-commercial compost heaps in Europe.^{[citation needed]}
Compost is used as a soil amendment in organic farming.

History[edit]

Compost Basket

Composting as a recognized practice dates to at least the early Roman Empire, and was mentioned as early as Cato the Elder's 160 BCE piece De Agri Cultura.^[48] Traditionally, composting involved piling organic materials until the next planting season, at which time the materials would have decayed enough to be ready for use in the soil. The advantage of this method is that little working time or effort is required from the composter and it fits in naturally with agricultural practices in temperate climates. Disadvantages (from the modern perspective) are that space is used for a whole year, some nutrients might be leached due to exposure to rainfall, and disease-producing organisms and insects may not be adequately controlled.

Composting was somewhat modernized beginning in the 1920s in Europe as a tool for organic farming.^[49] The first industrial station for the transformation of urban organic materials into compost was set up in Wels, Austria in the year 1921.^[50] Early frequent citations for propounding composting within farming are for the German-speaking world Rudolf Steiner, founder of a farming method called biodynamics, and Annie Francé-Harrar, who was appointed on behalf of the government in Mexico and supported the country 1950–1958 to set up a large humus organization in the fight against erosion and soil degradation.^[51]

In the English-speaking world it was Sir Albert Howard who worked extensively in India on sustainable practices and Lady Eve Balfour who was a huge proponent of composting. Composting was imported to America by various followers of these early European movements by the likes of J.I. Rodale (founder of Rodale Organic Gardening), E.E. Pfeiffer (who developed scientific practices in biodynamic farming), Paul Keene (founder of Walnut Acres in Pennsylvania), and Scott and Helen Nearing (who inspired the back-to-the-land movement of the 1960s). Coincidentally, some of the above met briefly in India - all were quite influential in the U.S. from the 1960s into the 1980s.

Society and culture[edit]

Terminology[edit]

The term "composting" is used worldwide with differing meanings.

"Humanure" is a portmanteau of human and manure, designating human excrement (feces and urine) that is recycled via composting for agricultural purposes. The term was first used in 1994 in a book by Joseph Jenkins that advocates the use of this organic soil amendment.^[52] The term humanure is used by compost enthusiasts in the United States but not widely used elsewhere.^[5] Because the term "humanure" has no authoritative definition it is subject to various uses. News reporters may use the term also for sewage sludge or biosolids.^[53]

Composting At Home

Compost is organic material that can be added to soil to help plants grow. Food scraps and yard waste together currently make up more than 28 percent of what we throw away, and should be composted instead. Making compost keeps these materials out of landfills where they take up space and release methane, a potent greenhouse gas.

On this page:

Composting Basics

All composting requires three basic ingredients:

Browns - This includes materials such as dead leaves, branches, and twigs.

Helpful Link

Reducing Wasted Food Basics
Greens - This includes materials such as grass clippings, vegetable waste, fruit scraps, and coffee grounds.
Water - Having the right amount of water, greens, and browns is important for compost development.

Your compost pile should have an equal amount of browns to greens. You should also alternate layers of organic materials of different-sized particles. The brown materials provide carbon for your compost, the green materials provide nitrogen, and the water provides moisture to help break down the organic matter.

Benefits of Composting

Enriches soil, helping retain moisture and suppress plant diseases and pests.
Reduces the need for chemical fertilizers.
Encourages the production of beneficial bacteria and fungi that break down organic matter to create humus, a rich nutrient-filled material.
Reduces methane emissions from landfills and lowers your carbon footprint.

Top of Page

How to Compost at Home

There are many different ways to make a compost pile; we have provided the following for general reference. Helpful tools include pitchforks, square-point shovels or machetes, and water hoses with a spray head. Regular mixing or turning of the compost and some water will help maintain the compost.

Backyard Composting

Select a dry, shady spot near a water source for your compost pile or bin.

Add brown and green materials as they are collected, making sure larger pieces are chopped or shredded.

Moisten dry materials as they are added.

Once your compost pile is established, mix grass clippings and green waste into the pile and bury fruit and vegetable waste under 10 inches of compost material.

Optional: Cover top of compost with a tarp to keep it moist. When the material at the bottom is dark and rich in color, your compost is ready to use. This usually takes anywhere between two months to two years.

Indoor Composting

If you do not have space for an outdoor compost pile, you can compost materials indoors using a special type of bin, which you can buy at a local hardware store, gardening supplies store, or make yourself. Remember to tend your pile and keep track of what you throw in. A properly managed compost bin will not attract pests or rodents and will not smell bad. Your compost should be ready in two to five weeks.

Introduction

Composting is the biological decomposition of organic waste such as food or plant material by bacteria, fungi, worms and other organisms under controlled aerobic (occurring in the presence of oxygen) conditions. The end result of composting is an accumulation of partially decayed organic matter called humus. Composting with worms, also known as vermiculture, results in nutrient-loaded worm castings.

Why Compost?

It's easy
It creates a useful soil enricher
It is an environmentally sound way of reducing yard waste

Yard waste is such materials as leaves, grass clippings, brush, and prunings. Some states, including Florida, have banned yard waste from landfills. Leaves and grass clippings can be used as mulch in your garden or landscape. Yard waste that will be picked up should be bundled or bagged.

How Does Composting Work?

Step 1: Choose the right composting method for you.

There are two kinds of composting--bin/pile composting and worm composting (vermiculture). The type of composter used should be the one that best suits your needs and capabilities.

Bin/pile composting:	Worm composting:
Simply throw in organic materials as they become available around your home and yard Learn about the right bin for you	Popular way to compost small amounts of food and paper wastes Read detailed instructions on how to build a worm bin

Step 2: Choose the right location for your compost bin.

Consider how you will get the raw materials to the pile and how the finished compost will be moved to the area it will be used.

Step 3: Decide what to compost.

To build a compost pile, simply alternate layers of browns and greens.

Greens:

Vegetable and food scraps
Fresh grass clippings and yard waste
Coffee gounds
Tea bags
Egg shells

Browns:

Dried leaves, grass, mulch or hay
Cardboard rolls
Sawdust
Lint
Newspaper (shredded)
Fireplace ashes
Hair/fur
Clean paper
Wool/cotton rags

Avoid:

Egg yolks (attract vermin)
Meat (attracts flies and rodents)
Oils, grease (produce odor, attract vermin)
Pesticides (can kill composting organisms)
Pet waste (can carry disease, attract flies)

Step 4: The composting process.

The compost pile should be periodically mixed to incorporate oxygen. Regularly check the internal temperature and turn over the mixture when it reaches 140°F.The compost pile should be built in layers 3 - 4 inches deep. Composting still happens if the pile is not turned, but the materials break down slowly.

Step 5: Using compost around your home.

Once the composting process is complete, the result is a dark, nutrient-rich humus that has many uses:

Soil Amendment--work a 1 - 3 inch layer of compost into garden soil.
Mulch--apply a 2 - 3 inch layer on top of existing soil
Potting mix--blend with potting soil for container plants

Composting is a great way to reduce your food waste and contributions to greenhouse gas emissions. But it can also seem like a daunting task, the sort of thing only seasoned gardeners with enormous yards can do right. What goes into it? How do you make sure it doesn't reek? And what even iscomposting?

Composting isn't as hard (or as smelly) as you've been led to believe. Anyone can compost in any location, as long as they understand the basics of this all-natural process. Learn how it works, why it's beneficial to the environment, and how to make it work for you through our guide below:

What is compost?

Compost is simply decayed organic matter — and "organic matter" is a pretty wide-ranging label. A twig can be organic matter, but so can a banana peel. When you mix a bunch of these items together in a compost pile, they break down naturally into a nutrient-rich fertilizer that helps gardens grow.

Almost anything that comes from the ground can be composted. Cucumber ends, apple cores, carrot peels, cantaloupe rinds, avocado pits, an old pumpkin leftover from Halloween — any vegetable or fruit scrap will do. But grains also sprout from soil, which means you can throw stale bread, cereal, and pasta in your compost heap, too.

What else goes into the pile? Coffee grounds and filters, tea leaves, herbs, spices, and nut and egg shells are all acceptable ingredients. You can also include cut flowers or plant trimmings, as long as they aren't diseased.

But there's a long list of things you can't compost — and they mostly apply to animal products. No meat, fish, butter, yogurt, cheese, milk, or animal fat is allowed. It's also a good rule of thumb to keep anything oily or greasy out of the pile, and please, don't include your pet's poop. It may be organic, but it introduces disease to the compost that make it unusable.

How can composting impact the environment?

When the food in your trash goes to a landfill, it emits methane, a greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change. Composting is a way to minimize those methane emissions, but it does a lot more than that. Because compost is used as a fertilizer, it reduces the need for chemical options, which can be harsh on the earth. According to the EPA, compost is also capable of capturing and eliminating 99.6 percent of volatile organic compounds, or VOCs, from the air. These vapors and gases can have a harmful impact on your health, with side effects ranging from nausea to throat irritation.

Studies further show that compost can aid in carbon sequestration. When applied to soil, compost potentially functions as a "carbon sink," trapping and containing the element in the dirt. And if the carbon is in the ground, it isn't in our atmosphere, where it can wreak havoc on the planet.

How do you compost?

Composting involves a lot of collecting — into a pile, heap, or bin. Instead of throwing out your coffee grounds or veggie scraps throughout the week, you just load them into your compost. The rest of the rules depend on where you're keeping that compost: indoors or outside.

How to start composting at home:

Let's say you're composting in a house with outdoor space. First, designate a spot outside for your compost heap. Some people maintain a literal heap of stuff on the ground, while others keep their items contained in a large tub. A tub is often easier for beginners, but if you're going with a heap, put up a small fence to keep critters out.

As you collect items in your compost, aim for a mix of nitrogen-rich "green" material and carbon-heavy "brown" material. Green materials tend to be wet, and include your fruit and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, and tea leaves. Brown materials are drier, and span sawdust, newspaper clippings, and trimmings from dead plants.

Every other week, turn your compost pile with a shovel to let it aerate. Add water to keep it moist, and keep an eye out for any worrisome pests or disease. But otherwise, you can sit back and let nature do the rest of the work. It will take months for your heap of kitchen scraps to morph into soil, but you should notice a change after a few weeks.

SOURCE: ISTOCK

How to compost in an apartment

Now let's say you live in a fourth-floor walk-up without any green space. You can still compost — and in fact, it may be even less labor-intensive than the backyard method.

Many cities now offer compost collection at farmers markets or designated drop sites. To participate, simply store your scraps in a container on your kitchen countertop or in your freezer. Then, on collection day, bring them to the market and dump them in communal compost tub.

Some cities also collect compost through trash and recycling services, often in a designated bin. Community gardens are another potential avenue, as they often accept or outright solicit compost from people in the neighborhood.

But if you have no city or community garden support, there's still vermicomposting. This self-contained system is designed for the indoors, but it often turns people off because it involves worms. You're essentially replicating what would happen naturally outside in a plastic bin with food scraps and redworms — as the Brooklyn Botanical Garden explains, you fill your bin with organic "bedding" like shredded newspaper or leaves, mix in a little soil, add the worms, and then feed them your compost. Keep a lid on the bin and to avoid any odors, store the whole thing in your fridge.

Can compost go bad?

Compost doesn't really "go bad," but it can get too dry, too wet, or too old. If it's too dry, add a little water to improve the moisture. If it's too wet, turn and mix all the ingredients, adding dry organic material like sawdust to absorb some of the extra liquid. And when compost is too old or otherwise "spent," it's not bad per se — it's just lost some nutrients. You can fix this by adding it into a fresh new pile of compost.

The benefits of composting:

On top of all the great things compost does for the environment, it's also a valuable tool for farmers and gardeners. Compost boosts water retention in soil, which means the budding plants in that soil need less irrigation. It also tends to facilitate bigger crop yields, giving food producers a better harvest. This all adds up to more growth with less water — and, in turn, a more affordable way to create food, flowers, and other plants.

What is a composting toilet?

Composting toilets are a whole different ballgame, though they still use the same basic biological process. Essentially, they transform human excrement (sometimes cheekily called "humanure") into a compost fertilizer. But it's a little more complicated than that.

To start, composting toilets are usually waterless, with no connection to a septic tank. When users "flush" this toilet, the contents drop into chambers under the toilet seat. Depending on the model, there might be separate areas for the urine and poop. The former evaporates, while the latter is composted into soil that's totally safe to use.

Composting toilets don't look all that different from standard ones — they just might come with a few extra pieces, or sit a little higher. And to answer the obvious question, disciples of the composting toilet swear they don't smell. Most feature ventilation systems and sealants designed to mitigate unpleasant bathroom odors.

What Are the Different Kinds of Composting?

Posted on February 22, 2016 by Uncle Jim | Tagged under Compost, Outdoor Composters, Red Worms, Vermicomposting

Composting means breaking down organic material. There are three kinds: aerobic, anaerobic, and vermicomposting. Each has its pros and cons. Households, farms, restaurants, schools, offices and places of business produce compostable materials. For example, food scraps, grass clippings, leaves, animal manure, and coffee grounds are all compostable. Composting is useful for making inexpensive fertilizer for lawns, gardens and farms. Here is a run-down of each type.

Aerobic Composting

With aerobic composting, air is introduced to help break down materials quickly. The compost needs to be turned every few days. This is where a “tumble” style of composter can save a lot of time and effort. Add scraps, then turn the handle or spin the composter to keep it aerated. You will probably want to add plenty of green matter that contains lots of nitrogen, such as grass clippings. As the bacteria break down the high-nitrogen-content scraps, the temperature of the compost will get higher. This speeds the process. Also, moisture may need to be added from a hose or watering can. The odors from aerobic composting will be bad if you don’t keep it moist and forget to turn it frequently. Also, you need to leave lots of air space in the composter.

Anaerobic Composting

You can tell, just by looking at the word, that anaerobic is the opposite of aerobic. Anaerobic composting takes almost no effort at all. Just chuck scraps into a compost pile or composter, and don’t fuss with it for a year or more.
However, hold your nose! Anaerobic composting stinks to high heaven. Without oxygen, some pretty nasty bacteria take over. This is what happens in a landfill, and it’s not healthy. Landfills produce so much methane, they can actually have explosions! Methane is a greenhouse gas that is bad for the environment. Many a garden party has been spoilt by a stinking, neglected anaerobic composter!

Vermicomposting

Vermicomposting uses worms, oxygen and moisture to safely break down organic material with few odors. Basically, worms do most of the heavy lifting, and bacteria also helps. Red worms are favorites for this type of composting. Vermicomposting is preferable to the other two methods, for these reasons:

Very little odor (it should smell “earthy”)
Very little, if any, dangerous anaerobic bacteria and methane
No need to “turn” frequently
Can be done indoors or outdoors
Easy to harvest the fertilizer, especially with a tray-based composter
Kids love taking care of the worms
Takes minutes a week
Worms become part of the household and work for you
If you like to go fishing, you get an endless supply of bait

Composting worms love to eat non-acidic vegetable and fruit scraps from your kitchen and garden. They enjoy grains like rice, oatmeal, pasta and bread. Just make sure you don’t include oily foods, meat or dairy products. You can use aged manure from herbivores, such as cows, horses and rabbits. Make sure the manure has aged at least a few days or longer. A few clean, crushed eggshells provide grit and help balance the bin’s PH. Fallen leaves and grass clippings, in smaller quantities, are great.
Starting vermicomposting involves selecting a type of composter, and then ordering composting worms.

Uncle Jim’s Worm Farm offers a video about making your own composter, as well as a selection of convenient composters you can order online. We also have information on building your own composter. Some people want to compost outdoors when the weather is warm, and indoors in the colder months; our Worm Factory 360 and Can-O-Worms composters are perfect for this.
To get you started with vermicomposting, order a bag of our champion composting worm, the Red Composting Worm Mix. We carefully package and ship the worms so they arrive alive. We also offer Super Reds, which are larger and better suited to be released into the garden.

So, given the choice, steer away from anaerobic composting unless you have no sense of smell. Aerobic composting with a tumbler or pitchfork works, but it’s for outdoors only and requires a bit of work to maintain. Vermicomposting with worms is the best of both worlds: you can compost indoors or out, and the worms become your partners in reducing waste.

Small Scale Co-Composting Process and Efficient Methods

Published by
Allance Composting

Thursday 22 December 2016

Composting at the household level is an important method for managing organic waste, which is normally the largest portion of household waste, reduces the environmental impacts of waste and the produced compost is essential for improving soil fertility and structure.

Besides the organic waste, composting can also be applied as secondary treatment for faeces and excreta collected in urine diversion and composting toilets. Degradation of is a natural process, but Composting allows us to control and accelerate this process by optimizing the environment for microbial activity in the waste.

Composting involves three stages: preparation of the waste by adjusting its size, moisture content and carbon-ratio; degradation of waste in pits, piles, vessels or vermi-composting; and finally preparing finished compost by curing and screening.

MSW management starts at the household level as households are the main source of waste in most urban areas. Waste minimization and managing of waste as close to the source as possible are the two most important tools for reducing cost and improving efficiency of waste management systems. Thus, waste recycling at the household level is very important.

Organic matter such as food waste and yard waste are the main components of household waste. Other types of waste generated by households include inorganic components plastics, metals, glass, and inert materials such as soil. The portion of in household waste is generally higher in developing countries. In Nepal, for example, over 65 per cent of the total waste is organic waste.

Organic waste can be recycled at the household level to produce animal feed, bio-gas or. Among these options, composting is probably the most simple and common method for recycling household organic waste. Composting is the process of optimizing the environment in the waste for microbial activity to decompose organic matter into valuable nutrients for the soil. Household compostinginvolves the following three stages: waste preparation, degradation of waste and finishing of waste.

Waste Preparation

Waste needs to be sorted and prepared for rapid degradation. This includes the following steps:

Mix the waste to ensure that the (C:) is close to 25 – If the waste has too much carbon (normally brown waste such as dried leaves) it should be mixed with waste that has high nitrogen content (also known as green waste such as green grass clippings). Kitchen waste only normally has a suitable C:N ratio for composting.
Chop the waste into small pieces. Large pieces of organic waste should be cut to small pieces to accelerate the composting process.
Adjust the moisture content to about 50 per cent. A compost pile with 50% moisture should feel moist but water should not be dripping from it.
Add a starter such as mature compost or effective microorganisms (EM) to speed up the composting process.

Degradation of Waste

Once the waste is converted into raw material for composting, the waste can be degraded using one of the methods mentioned below. The degradation process should be controlled by maintaining adequate temperature, moisture and aeration. There are different types of vessels for composting at this stage: composting in pits, composting in piles, in-vessel composting and vermi-composting.

Compost pits

One simple method for composting organic waste is to put it in pits and let it turn into compostover a period of six months or more. This process requires some space and time but the main benefit is that the waste is not visible as it is buried in the pit.

Compost piles

In this method, the waste is put in piles on the ground and regularly turned to allow aeration. The size of the pile may vary depending on the amount of waste and available space, but generally, it should be 1 to 2 m on each side and not more than 1.5 m in height. Chicken wire or wooden planks can be used to keep the pile together.

In-vessel composting

Compost can also be made in made in bags or bins. Normally holes are made in the bin or bags to allow aeration. Compost bins can be made from 100 to 200 litre plastic bins or barrels. In order to allow proper aeration, the bin is normally divided into two sections with a grill separating the two sections.

Organic waste is put into the top section and allowed to degrade and once the Compost is prepared it is removed from the bottom section. Because of the natural draught created in the bin by the grill and the holes, frequent turning of the waste is not required in this method.

Municipalities and NGOs in countries such as Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka have been distributing Compost bins to residents at subsidised rates to promote household Composting (TULADHAR 2004; ALI 2004; LEKAMMUDIYANSE et al. 2009).

Vermi-composting

This involves the use of special types of earthworms to convert organic waste into worm casting, which is better than ordinary Compostin improving soil’s structure and fertility. Vermi-Composting is a simple and effective process that can be done indoors in the kitchen itself as it requires very little space and does not cause problems such as odour. Most common worm species for vermi-composting are Eisenia foetida, Lumbricus rubellus, and Eisenia hortensis .

The worms are placed in bedding made of loose materials such as coconut husk or shredded paper in a shallow box or tub and fed with soft organic matter such as kitchen waste. After about two months the compost can be harvested by putting the compostin the shape of a cone and scrapping off the top layers. The worms go to the bottom of the cone as they run away from light.

Compost is the gift that keeps on giving. Cut back on food waste and turn your scraps into "black gold" that will feed and enrich your garden.

Some common misconceptions of home composting are that it's too complicated, it'll smell funny, and it's messy. These are all true if you compost the wrong way. Composting the right way is a very simple approach: Simply layer organic materials and a dash of soil to create a concoction that turns into humus (the best soil builder around!). You can then improve your flower garden with compost, top dress your lawn, feed your growing veggies, and more. With these simple steps on how to compost, you'll have all of the bragging rights of a pro!

Types of Composting

Before you start piling on, recognize that there are two types of composting: cold and hot. Cold composting is as simple as collecting yard waste or taking out the organic materials in your trash (such as fruit and vegetable peels, coffee grounds and filters, and eggshells) and then corralling them in a pile or bin. Over the course of a year or so, the material will decompose.

Hot composting is for the more serious gardener but a faster process—you'll get compost in one to three months during warm weather. Four ingredients are required for fast-cooking hot compost: nitrogen, carbon, air, and water. Together, these items feed microorganisms, which speed up the process of decay. In spring or fall when garden waste is plentiful, you can mix one big batch of compost and then start a second one while the first "cooks."

Related: How to Build a Compost Bin

Vermicompost is made via worm composting. When worms eat your food scraps, they release castings, which are rich in nitrogen. You can't use just any old worms for this, however—you need redworms (also called "red wigglers"). Worms for composting can be purchased inexpensively online or at a garden supplier.

What to Compost

Composting is a great way to use the things in your refrigerator that you didn't get to, therefore eliminating waste. Keeping a container in your kitchen, like this chic white ceramic compost bucket from World Market, is an easy way to accumulate your composting materials. If you don't want to buy one, you can make your own indoor or outdoor homemade compost bin. Collect these materials to start off your compost pile right:

Fruit scraps
Vegetable scraps
Coffee grounds
Eggshells
Grass and plant clippings
Dry leaves
Finely chopped wood and bark chips
Shredded newspaper
Straw
Sawdust from untreated wood

Editor's Tip: Think twice before adding onions and garlic to your homemade compost pile. It is believed that these vegetables repel earthworms, which are a vital part of your garden.

What NOT to Compost

Not only will these items not work as well in your garden, but they can make your compost smell and attract animals and pests. Avoid these items for a successful compost pile:

Anything containing meat, oil, fat, or grease
Diseased plant materials
Sawdust or chips from pressure-treated wood
Dog or cat feces
Weeds that go to seed
Dairy products

Step 1: Combine Green and Brown Materials

To make your own hot-compost heap, wait until you have enough materials to make a pile at least 3 feet deep. You are going to want to combine your wet, green items with your dry, brown items. "Brown" materials include dried plant materials; fallen leaves; shredded tree branches, cardboard, or newspaper; hay or straw; and wood shavings, which add carbon. "Green" materials include kitchen scraps and coffee grounds, animal manures (not from dogs or cats), and fresh plant and grass trimmings, which add nitrogen. For best results, start building your compost pile by mixing three parts brown with one part green materials. If your compost pile looks too wet and smells, add more brown items or aerate more often. If you see it looks extremely brown and dry, add green items and water to make it slightly moist.

Step 2: Water Your Pile

Sprinkle water over the pile regularly so it has the consistency of a damp sponge. Don't add too much water, otherwise, the microorganisms in your pile will become waterlogged and drown. If this happens, your pile will rot instead of compost. Monitor the temperature of your pile with a thermometer to be sure the materials are properly decomposing. Or, simply reach into the middle of the pile with your hand. Your compost pile should feel warm.

Step 3: Stir Up Your Pile

During the growing season, you should provide the pile with oxygen by turning it once a week with a garden fork. The best time to turn the compost is when the center of the pile feels warm or when a thermometer reads between 130 and 150 degrees F. Stirring up the pile will help it cook faster and prevents material from becoming matted down and developing an odor. At this point, the layers have served their purpose of creating equal amounts of green and brown materials throughout the pile, so stir thoroughly.

Editor's Tip: In addition to aerating regularly, chop and shred raw ingredients into smaller sizes to speed up the composting process

Step 4: Feed Your Garden

When the compost no longer gives off heat and becomes dry, brown, and crumbly, it's fully cooked and ready to feed to the garden. Add about 4 to 6 inches of compost to your flower beds and into your pots at the beginning of each planting season.

Some gardeners make what's known as compost tea with some of their finished compost. This involves allowing fully formed compost to "steep" in water for several days, then straining it to use as a homemade liquid fertilizer.

Every gardener is different, so it's up to you to decide which composting method best fits your lifestyle. Fortunately, no matter which route you choose, compost is incredibly easy and environmentally friendly. Plus, it's a treat for your garden. With just a few kitchen scraps and some patience, you'll have the happiest garden possible.

TYPES OF COMPOSTING

Backyard or Onsite Composting

Backyard or onsite composting can be conducted by residents and other small-quantity generators of organic waste on their own property. By composting these materials onsite, homeowners and select businesses can significantly reduce the amount of waste that needs to be disposed of and thereby save money from avoided disposal costs. Learn how to create your own compost pile.

Types of Waste and Waste Generators: Backyard or onsite composting is suitable for converting yard trimmings and food scraps into compost that can be applied on site. This method should not be used to compost animal products or large quantities of food scraps. Households, commercial establishments, and institutions (e.g., universities, schools, hospitals) can leave grass clippings on the lawn-known as “grasscycling”-where the cuttings will decompose naturally and return some nutrients back to the soil. Backyard or onsite composters also might keep leaves in piles for eventual use as mulch around trees and scrubs to retain moisture.
Climate or Seasonal Considerations: Climate and seasonal variations do not present major challenges to backyard or onsite composting because this method typically involves small quantities of organic waste. When conditions change-for example, if a rainy season approaches-the process can be adjusted accordingly without many complications.
Environmental Concerns: Improper management of food scraps can cause odors and also might attract unwanted attention from insects or animals.
Requirements: Backyard or onsite composting requires very little time or equipment. Education is the most critical aspect of backyard or onsite composting. Local communities might hold composting demonstrations and seminars to encourage homeowners or businesses to compost on their own properties.
Results: The conversion of organic material to compost can take up to two years, but manual turning can hasten the process considerably (e.g., 3 to 6 months). The resulting natural fertilizer can be applied to lawns and gardens to help condition the soil and replenish nutrients. Compost, however, should not be used as potting soil for houseplants because of the presence of weed and grass seeds.

Vermicomposting

Through this method, red worms-not nightcrawlers or field worms found in gardens- are placed in bins with organic matter in order to break it down into a high-value compost called castings. Worm bins are easy to construct (they are also commercially available) and can be adapted to accommodate the volume of food scraps generated.

Types of Waste and Waste Generators: Worms will eat almost anything you would put in a typical compost pile (e.g., food scraps, paper, plants). Vermicomposting can be ideal for apartment dwellers or small offices that want to derive some of the benefits of composting and reduce solid waste. It is frequently used in schools to teach children conservation and recycling.
Climate or Seasonal Considerations: Worms are sensitive to variations in climate. Extreme temperatures and direct sunlight are not healthy for the worms. The optimal temperatures for vermicomposting range from 55° F to 77° F. In hot, arid areas, the bin should be placed under the shade. By vermicomposting indoors, however, one can avoid many of the problems posed by hot or cold climates. The primary responsibility is to keep the worms alive and healthy by providing the proper conditions and sufficient food.
Requirements: Vermicomposting has only a few basic requirements, among them: worms, worm bedding (e.g., shredded newspaper, cardboard), and a bin to contain the worms and organic matter. Maintenance procedures include preparing bedding, burying garbage, and separating worms from their castings.
Results: One pound of mature worms (approximately 800-1,000 worms) can eat up to half a pound of organic material per day. It typically takes three to four months for these worms to produce harvestable castings, which can be used as potting soil. Vermicomposting also produces compost or “worm” tea, a high-quality liquid fertilizer for house plants or gardens.

Aerated (Turned) Windrow Composting

Organic waste is formed into rows of long piles called “windrows” and aerated by turning the pile periodically by either manual or mechanical means. The ideal pile height, which is between 4 and 8 feet, allows for a pile large enough to generate sufficient heat and maintain temperatures, yet small enough to allow oxygen to flow to the windrow's core. The ideal pile width is between 14 and 16 feet.

Types of Waste and Waste Generators: This method can accommodate large volumes of diverse wastes, including yard trimmings, grease, liquids, and animal byproducts (such as fish and poultry wastes), but only with frequent turning and careful monitoring. This method is suited for large quantities, such as that generated by entire communities and collected by local governments, and high volume food-processing businesses (e.g., restaurants, cafeterias, packing plants).
Climate or Seasonal Considerations: In a warm, arid climate, windrows are sometimes covered or placed under a shelter to prevent water from evaporating. In rainy seasons, the shapes of the pile can be adjusted so that water runs off the top of the pile rather than being absorbed into the pile. Also, windrow composting can work in cold climates. Often the outside of the pile might freeze, but in its core, a windrow can reach 140° F.
Environmental Concerns: Leachate is liquid released during the composting process. This can contaminate local ground-water and surface-water supplies and should be collected and treated. In addition, windrow composting is a large scale operation and might be subject to regulatory enforcement. Samples of the compost should be tested in a laboratory for bacterial and heavy metal content. Odors also need to be controlled. The public should be informed of the operation and have a method to address any complaints about animals or bad odors. Other concerns might include zoning and siting requirements.
Requirements: Windrow composting often requires large tracts of land, sturdy equipment, a continual supply of labor to maintain and operate the facility, and patience to experiment with various materials mixtures and turning frequencies.
Results: This method will yield significant amounts of compost, which might require assistance to market the end-product. Alternatively, local governments can make the compost available to residents for a low or no cost.

Aerated Static Pile Composting

In aerated static pile composting, organic waste is mixed together in one large pile instead of rows. To aerate the pile, layers of loosely piled bulking agents (e.g., wood chips, shredded newspaper) are added so that air can pass from the bottom to the top of the pile. The piles also can be placed over a network of pipes that deliver air into or draw air out of the pile. Air blowers might be activated by a timer or a temperature sensors.
Types of Waste and Waste Generators: Aerated static piles are suitable for a relatively homogenous mix of organic waste and work well for larger quantity generators of yard trimmings and compostable municipal solid waste (e.g., food scraps, paper products), which might include local governments, landscapers, or farms. This method, however, does not work well for composting animal byproducts or grease from food processing industries.

Climate or Seasonal Considerations: Like windrow composting, in a warm, arid climate, aerated static piles are sometimes covered or placed under a shelter to prevent water from evaporating. In the cold, the core of the pile will retain its warm temperature, but aeration might be more difficult in the cold because this method involves passive air flowing rather than active turning. Some aerated static piles are placed indoors with proper ventilation.
Environmental Concerns: Since there is no physical turning, this method requires careful monitoring to ensure that the outside of the pile heats up as much as the core. One way to alleviate bad odors is to apply a thick layer of finished compost over the pile, which can help maintain high temperatures throughout the pile. Another way to deal with odor, provided that the air blower draws air out of the pile, is to filter this air through a biofilter made from finished compost.
Requirements: This method typically requires equipment such as blowers, pipes, sensors, and fans, which might involve significant costs and technical assistance. Having a controlled supply of air enables construction of large piles, which require less land than the windrow method.
Results: This method produces compost relatively quickly-within 3 to 6 months.

In-Vessel Composting

Organic materials are fed into a drum, silo, concrete-lined trench, or similar equipment where the environmental conditions-including temperature, moisture, and aeration-are closely controlled. The apparatus usually has a mechanism to turn or agitate the material for proper aeration. In-vessel composters vary in size and capacity.
Types of Waste and Waste Generators: In-vessel composting can process large amounts of waste without taking up as much space as the windrow method. In addition, it can accommodate virtually any type of organic waste (e.g., meat, animal manure, biosolids, food scraps). Some in-vessel composters can fit into a school or restaurant kitchen while others can be as large as a school bus to accommodate large food processing plants.

Climate or Seasonal Considerations: In-vessel composting can be used year-round in virtually any climate because the environment is carefully controlled, often by electronic means. This method can even be used in extremely cold weather if the equipment is insulated or the processing takes place indoors.
Environmental Concerns: In-vessel composting produces very little odor and minimal leachate.
Requirements: In-vessel composters are expensive and might require technical assistance to operate properly, but this method uses much less land and manual labor than windrow composting.
Results: Conversion of organic material to compost can take as little as a few weeks. Once the compost comes out of the vessel, however, it still requires a few more weeks or months for the microbial activity to stabilize and the pile to cool.

BENEFITS OF COMPOSTING

Reduce or eliminate the need for chemical fertilizers.
Promote higher yields of agricultural crops.
Facilitate reforestation, wetlands restoration, and habitat revitalization efforts by amending contaminated, compacted, and marginal soils.
Cost-effectively remediate soils contaminated by hazardous waste.
Remove solids, oil, grease, and heavy metals from stormwater runoff.
Avoids Methane and leachate formulation in landfills.
Capture and destroy 99.6 percent of industrial volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) in contaminated air. See Innovative Uses of Compost: Bioremediation and Pollution Prevention.
Provide cost savings of at least 50 percent over conventional soil, water, and air pollution remediation technologies, where applicable. See Analysis of Composting as an Environmental Remediation Technology
Reduces the need for water, fertilizers, and pesticides.
Serves as a marketable commodity and is a low-cost alternative to standard landfill cover and artificial soil amendments.
Extends municipal landfill life by diverting organic materials from landfills.

8 Methods of Composting is what I consider to be the most commonly used methods of composting for a business or home environment.

If you have read 7 Composting Methods then this article is an update to that article. I added Mechanical Composting as I think this is another very viable method of composting that like all composters have its own advantages and disadvantages.

For a deeper understanding of composting register to receive the monthly newsletter and you will be emailed the white paper by Bob’s James on Composting Principles which discuss the mechanics of composting.

The other information in this article talks about the different methods of composting.

Everybody has different needs so at any given point in time one or more of these methods might suit your current living conditions and you might at some point change the way you compost many times throughout your lifetime.

What you once found useful might become obsolete as your needs and environment change so it’s a good idea to have an understanding of the pros and cons of each system. However, what might be a pro for you may be a con for someone else. You just need to work out what is best for you.

They all work in varying degrees for different purposes, some more efficiently than others and some are just simply, different. You may have tried some of these methods, are happy with your method, are looking for something to compliment your system or are looking for a change.

So I hope this information sheds some light on factors you may not have considered when you last chose your composter or if you are now choosing a new composter.

Composting Methods

Traditional backyard composting is typically achieved by:

Open air composting (hot composting)

Direct Composting (in-ground composting)

More Recent methods of composting are:

Tumbler Composting (A form of hot composting)

Worm Farm Composting (Vermicomposting)

EMO Composting (Bacteria composting)

Combination Composting (Compot Composting)

Commercial Composting

Mechanical Composting

Elements generally required in most systems in order to produce compost.

Air	Compost needs to be aerated or it creates an anaerobic environment for bacteria which produces unpleasant odours and attracts vermin
Water	Essential to keep the compost moist
Vegetable Matter	Essential to obtain organically rich compost
Worms	Digest decomposed matter and release worm castings that provide plants with the nutrients they need for growth
Carbon-nitrogen mix (brown and green waste)	Essential to create the right temperature for creating compost from green waste and to kill seeds and disease
Bacteria (EMO’s)	Will decompose the food before the worms eat it
Soldier Flies	Not essential but devours waste food quicker than worms or bacteria
Other Beneficial Bugs	Cockroaches and other insects that help in the decomposition process (including maggots if putting meat in a compost pile – not recommended for most composters except the Compot.

1. Open Air Composting

Open Air Composting is traditionally a pile of green and brown matter in your backyard.

More often than not it is a bay constructed of anything you can get your hands on that is cheap and easy to put together.

Or you might have a couple of bins upturned sitting on the ground like the Gedye bin you can buy in a shop.

Wire cages are also used inlaid with piping around the edges to hold water and capture heat.

This can then be used for hot water systems in sustainability situations.

Open Air Composting is generally considered to be a Hot Composting method. Some people often call it a Cold Composting when smaller quantities of waste are used because it does not build up the same amount of heat.

To me, Cold Composting still produces heat and therefore is not technically cold composting.

Perhaps one could call it Warm Composting as the only way you could completely cold compost something is to let it rot in the fridge. And we all know that smell in the fridge.

Pros and Cons of Bay Composting

2. Direct Composting

Direct Compost is simply digging a hole or trench in the ground and burying your scraps.

It is also probably the oldest and most effective method of composting, but like all other methods of composting it too has its limitations. The main one being that it takes a long time to decompose unless you chop everything up.

You can only bury fruit and veg or you run the risk of it being dug up by all sorts of garden critters from birds to vermin. And you have to keep digging holes.

It does, however, produce an abundance of worms that then help to nourish your garden and improve your soil.

Pros and Cons of Direct Composting

3. Tumbler Composting

Tumbler Composting comes in many shapes and sizes of single to double units that you may purchase commercially from your local hardware store.

For many people, this is a great system if you are relatively strong and keen to turn it every day or every few days.

For others, it is hard work especially if you are getting on in years. But you can get some mechanized ones that make turning easier.

You often need two of these systems so you can let one sit for a few months to fully decompose before you empty it. While this is happening you fill the other one up.

This can be a good system if you have a large amount of green and brown waste to dispose of and have the space to fit this system.

If you are only filling it with green and brown waste then a bay system would be just as good though you may have to watch out for snakes and rats nesting in the warm compost.

Pros and Cons of Tumbler Composting

4. Worm Farm Composting

Worm Farm Composting for many is the most common and preferred choice of composting because of their capabilities to grow worms, produce compost and compost tea and keep rats out of your compost.

The worms produce castings concentrated with nutrients lower in nitrogen compared to other composting methods.

Worm farms can be utilized even if you have no garden.

I think everyone has tried at some point in time to make their own worm farm with varying degrees of success using anything they can find that is cheap.

Do not house them in metal containers as copper leaches out, which is toxic to your worms.

I personally have tried foam containers only to find the worm juice eats out the foam so they leak everywhere.

Unless you have them on the ground somewhere so the nutrients can go directly into the soil you end up with a big mess.

If you use plastic containers you can collect the juice but then you have to add a tap to drain it off or some way of rotating the containers to collect the worm tea.

They need to be kept out of the sun, frost, and rain, and somewhere that’s not too cold either.

Worms are temperamental little critters and will try and escape their containers if the conditions are not right and they are not happy.

It is said that you should use local worms for your area. I personally have no experience with this so you would have to try worms from other areas to know for sure if they will survive.

Local Worm Types

South Australia Red Worms (Lumbricus rubellus) and Tiger worms (Eisenia fetida) under ideal conditions are said to rapidly reproduce 8 to 1500 worms
The Tropics use Pontoscolex corethrunus or Pheretima group, commonly found in gardens
Fishing worms are apparently not good for composting.

If you can be bothered (according to Bob) you need to test the pH of each batch as some may be are more acidic than others.

But who has time for this or could be bothered.

That’s why I love the Compot because the local worms in your garden will come and you don’t need to add worms unless you have really bad soil.

Pros and Cons of Worm Farm Composting

5. EMO Composting

EMO Composting or Effective MicroOrganisms is a system generally used for indoor composting but can be used by anyone who likes this method of composting.

The most common product using EMO’s is the Bokashi but other indoor systems can use it plus there are some systems that use a carbon filter in the lid as well to filter odors.

Generally speaking, you need two of these, so while one is sitting the other is being filled.

You can collect juice to use in your garden.

But you cannot put everything from your kitchen is the Bokashi System.

You can buy the EMO online through many sites selling the Bokashi System.

You can use the EMO’s in other systems if you so desire to aid the composting process.

Pros and Cons of EMO Composting

6. Combination Composting

Combination Composting or Compot Composting is a combination method of open-air composting, direct composting, vermicomposting, and EMO composting.

All the elements of composting are used and will suit most household circumstances.
For some people, it too has its challenges. But for me, the challenges are less and the rewards are better.
You can compost ‘ALL’ your kitchen waste and not just ‘some’ of it.

So ultimately you have over 50% less waste each week to put in your council bin.

Just Fill…Forget…Refill…when ready and give it a good clean out once a year.

It is faster and requires less work than most other composters.

And it nourishes your soil with all your own waste.

To me, it is the easiest composter I have ever used.

Pros and Cons of Compot Composting

7. Commercial Composting

Commercial Composting is different to backyard composting and uses different materials.
The Compost is made in long rows using such materials as, sawdust, pine bark, sand plus ferrous sulphate and maybe some sulphate of ammonia all mixed together.
It is usually turned every 3 to 4 days and is generally ready in 6 weeks for bagging.
There is not much nutrient value in the cheap commercial compost.
But there are small independent commercial compost companies that produce a better quality product, than the large commercial compost companies. They are however more expensive.

Some producers such as McLeod’s Agriculture are certified organic as well.
The old saying “you get what you pay for” certainly applies to commercial compost.

The cheaper commercial compost is a good filler for raised garden beds or to backfill a Compot in clay or sandy soil.

Or it can be used to mix with composted soil to fill a pot plant perhaps.
If you are buying commercial grade compost to grow things it is best to buy a high-quality propagation mix.

Pros and Cons of Commercial Composting

8. Mechanical Composting

Mechanical Composting is an efficient method of composting that uses electricity to create the heat required and rotation of the contents required to produce semi-composted waste literally within a 24 hour period.

This system suits restaurants, hotels, motels, hospitals, schools, kindergartens and any large institution creating large amounts of waste from many people. It is a manageable in-house system instead of sending your waste off to council tips. You do however need to further compost the waste so need someone to collect the leftover contents for further composting in a garden bed or bay composting system.

There are also small systems that suit some people for their private residence but they can be quite expensive and will, of course, cost you ongoing electricity. Like all composters they to come with some pros and cons, but they do produce fast semi-composted soil.

Different Types of Compost


	Example of ready to use compost. Photo credit: wisemandarine Flickr CC BY-SA 2.0

Many different types of compost can be used in the landscape to improve soil. According to the US Composting Council most compost is used for trees and shrubs, perennial beds, vegetable gardens, and lawns.

Composting is a naturally occurring process of decomposition found in nature. Home composting speeds up this process.

Compost can be made from almost any organic material. These materials will eventually break down into a stable product that provides nutrients, increases soil moisture holding capacity, regulates soil temperature, and improves organic matter in soils.

Different types of compost can be created by the homeowner, purchased in bags, or delivered in large quantities. Purchased compost, however, may contain unwanted compounds such as pathogens, pesticide residues or heavy metals.

There are no federal guidelines regulating compost, however, states do regulate compost facilities in order to protect public health.

Types of Compost

Yard trimmings
Food wastes
Leaves
Manure (cow, horse, sheep, poultry)
Mushroom compost
Vermicomposting

Compost is one of the most energy efficient and green ways of improving the quality of the soil on a permaculture plot. It avoids wastage by transforming refuse from the garden and the kitchen into nutrient-rich humus that when added to soil will provide the plants growing in it a plentiful supply of the nutrients they need to grow, thrive and set abundant crops.
There are two fundamental forms of composting technique: hot and cold. The former is quicker at turning organic material into usable compost, but does require more time and effort from the permaculture gardener to achieve the effect. Hot composting involves keeping the temperature at the center of the compost pile elevated, ideally to somewhere between 110 and 140 degrees Fahrenheit. The pile needs to be kept moist – so that it is the consistency of a damp sponge – and the gardener needs to turn it once a week or so. This moves colder material from the outside of the pile to the inside where it is heated and so breaks down into rich humus more quickly. Hot composting has the advantage that it will produce useable compost quickly, and the high temperatures mean that it can break down weed seeds. The permaculture gardener should avoid adding such seeds to cold composting methods, as the more passive form of transformation does not reach the temperatures required to break them down. Cold composting essentially means creating a compost pile and leaving nature to do its job. It requires less input from the gardener, but does mean that useable compost can take up to a year to be ready.
The ingredients for both hot and cold composting are the same, with roughly equal parts brown and green material. The brown material consists of items such as branch prunings, leaves and twigs, while the green portion comprises things like fruit and vegetable scraps and grass clippings. To this can be added livestock manure (although do not use cat or dog waste, as these can contain pathogens that are harmful to humans), and soil (which will contain bacteria and microorganisms that will start to break down the material), along with such miscellaneous items as coffee grounds, shredded newspaper and eggshells. However, while the ingredients are similar, within the two categories of hot and cold composting there are several different methods you can use to create compost for your permaculture plot.
Bin
Referred to in industrial agriculture as ‘in-vessel composting’ composting in a bin essentially refers to any method that utilizes a closed container. It is an easy technique and is adaptable to many different types of permaculture plot, being suitable for gardens, courtyards and even balconies. The contained nature of the bin means that you can compost all year round, but while turning isn’t required, the lack of aeration does mean that the composting process can take upwards of six months, depending on factors such as material used and local climatic conditions. You can purchase a general all-purpose bin or recycle any large enclosed container, such as a barrel.
Turning Bin
To quicken the process of bin composting, you can fabricate or purchase a container that can be turned. A crank and pivot means that the whole container can be rotated, shifting the contents so that they are aerated, and thus quickening the decomposition process. However, they are unlikely to reach the high temperatures required for hot composting, so this is a cold technique, although, depending on the materials, a turning bin can produce useable compost within two months.
Pile
A pile is simply that: a mound of compost that is open to the air. Some gardeners use recycled bricks or lumber to build a containing wall around three sides of the pile, while other will construct a cage from chicken wire to stop the compost pile spreading too much. Ideally a pile will be wider than it is high, as this helps it retain heat better, but a pile can be used in whatever space is available; it will just take a bit longer for the compost to be ready. (If possible have two piles so that when one has reached a manageable size it can be left to its own devices while new material can be added to the second pile.) The length of time for decomposition will also depend upon whether you choose to turn a pile or not. It is optional, and therefore pile composting can be used for either hot or cold composting.
Sheet
Sheet composting is very similar to mulching, in that a layer of organic material is spread over the garden bed and

allowed to decompose in situ. While mulching tends to use a layer of a single material, such as straw or wood chips, sheet composting involves using different types of material, such as leaves, debris from the garden, kitchen scraps and grass clippings. In conventional gardens, the compost is usually dug or tilled into the topsoil, but as a permaculture gardener wishes to minimize digging the soil, you may want to spread the compost on the ground then add a layer of mulch such as straw over the top. This will increase the rate of decomposition and prevent the compost from being eroded away by rain and wind.
Pit
A step on from sheet composting is the pit or trench method. This is primarily used for composting fruit and vegetable scraps from the kitchen. It involves digging shallow holes or trenches into which the scraps are placed and then recovered with the soil. The anaerobic organisms within the soil then break down the material over six to twelve months. IA cold composting technique, it has the benefit of keeping the compost out of sight and is a useful method for when you are establishing new garden beds, as it gives the plants a consistent supply of nutrients in the root area. However, it does require the labor of digging the holes and is not suitable for brown material such as twigs as these would take too long to break down to give the plants any benefit.

Composting - an overview

Composting is essentially a microbiological decomposition of organic residues collected from rural area (rural compost) or urban area (urban compost).

Methods of composting

These advantages manifest themselves in reduced cropping risks, higher yields and lower outlays on inorganic fertilizers for farmers.

Dung and urine produced by animals per day

Animal	Urine (ml / kg live wt)	Quantity of dung (Kg) per day
Horse	3-18	9-18
Cattle	17-45	18-30
Buffaloes	20-45	25-40
Sheep and goats	10-40	1-2.5
Pigs	5-30	3-5
Poultry	-	2.5-3.5

Nutritive value of animal solid and liquid excreta

Animal	Dung (mg/g)			Urine (%)
Animal	N	P	K	N	P	K
Cattle	20-45	4-10	7-25	1.21	0.01	1.35
Sheep and goat	20-45	4-11	20-29	1.47	0.05	1.96
Pig	20-45	6-12	15-48	0.38	0.1	0.99
Poultry	28-62	9-26	8-29	-	-	-

Why composting is necessary?

The rejected biological materials contain complex chemical compounds such as lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, polysaccharides, proteins, lipids etc.
These complex materials cannot be used as such as resource materials.
The complex materials should be converted into simple inorganic element as available nutrient.
The material put into soil without conversion will undergo conversion inside the soil.
This conversion process take away all energy and available nutrients from the soil affecting the crop.
Hence conversion period is mandatory.

Advantages of Composting

Volume reduction of waste.
Final weight of compost is very less.
Composting temperature kill pathogen, weed seeds and seeds.
Matured compost comes into equilibrium with the soil.
During composting number of wastes from several sources are blended together.
Excellent soil conditioner
Saleable product
Improves manure handling
Redues the risk of pollution
Pathogen reduction
Additional revenue.
Suppress plant diseases and pests.
Reduce or eliminate the need for chemical fertilizers.
Promote higher yields of agricultural crops.
Facilitate reforestation, wetlands restoration, and habitat revitalization efforts by amending contaminated, compacted, and marginal soils.
Cost-effectively remediate soils contaminated by hazardous waste.
Remove solids, oil, grease, and heavy metals from stormwater runoff.
Capture and destroy 99.6 percent of industrial volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) in contaminated air.
Provide cost savings of at least 50 percent over conventional soil, water, and air pollution remediation technologies, where applicable.

Drawbacks of Using Composts
Agricultural use of composts remains low for several reasons:

The product is weighty and bulky, making it expensive to transport.
The nutrient value of compost is low compared with that of chemical fertilizers, and the rate of nutrient release is slow so that it cannot usually meet the nutrient requirement of crops in a short time, thus resulting in some nutrient deficiency
The nutrient composition of compost is highly variable compared to chemical fertilizers.
Agricultural users might have concerns regarding potential levels of heavy metals and other possible contaminants in compost, particularly mixed municipal solid wastes. The potential for contamination becomes an important issue when compost is used on food crops.
Long-term and/or heavy application of composts to agricultural soils has been found to result in salt, nutrient, or heavy metal accumulation and may adversely affect plant growth, soil organisms, water quality, and animal and human health

Composting organic materials with high lignin content - lime treatment

By adding organic wastes such as sawdust, wood shavings, coir pith, pine needles, and dry fallen leaves, while preparing organic waste mixtures for composting, one can ensure that the compost produced contains sufficient and long-lasting humus. However, gardeners often find that where they use lignin-rich plant materials, the compost does not ripen rapidly. A technique for making good compost from hard plant materials involves mixing lime in a ratio of 5 kg per 1000 kg of waste material. Lime can be applied as dry powder or after mixing with a sufficient quantity of water. Treatment with lime enhances the process of decomposition of hard materials.
Liming can enhance the humification process in plant residues by enhancing microbial population and activity and by weakening lignin structure. It also improves the humus quality by changing the ratio of humic to fulvic acids and decreases the amount of bitumen, which interferes with the decomposition process. Instead of lime, powdered phosphate rock can be used in a ratio of 20 kg per 1 000 kg of organic waste. Phosphate rock contains a lot of lime. The phosphates and micronutrients contained in phosphate rock make composts rich in plant nutrients.

Composting weeds

This method has been developed for composting weeds such as parthenium, water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), cyperus (Cyperus rotundus) and cynodon (Cynodon dactylon).

Materials Required

250 g of Trichoderma viride and Pleurotus sajor-caju consortia, and 5 kg of urea. An elevated shaded place is selected, or a thatched shed is erected. An area of 500 cm × 150 cm is marked out. The material to be composted is cut to 10-15 cm in size. About 100 kg of cut material is spread over the marked area. About 50 g of microbial consortia is sprinkled over this layer. About 100 kg of weeds are spread on this layer. One kilogram of urea is sprinkled uniformly over the layer. This process is repeated until the level rises to 1 m. Water is sprinkled as necessary to maintain a moisture level of 50-60 percent. Thereafter, the surface of the heap is covered with a thin layer of soil. The pile requires a thorough turning on the twenty-first day. The compost is ready in about 40 days.

Compost enrichment

Application of superphosphate, bonemeal or phosphate rock: 1 kg of superphosphate or bonemeal is applied over each layer of animal dung. Low-grade phosphate rock can also be used for this purpose.
Use of animal bones: these can be broken into small pieces, boiled with wood ash leachate or lime water and drained, and the residue applied to the pits. This procedure of boiling bones facilitates their disintegration. Even the addition of raw bones, broken into small pieces and added to the pit, improves the nutrient value of compost significantly.
Wood ash waste can also be added to increase the K content of compost.
Addition of N-fixing and P-solubilizing cultures (IARI, 1989): The quality of compost can be further improved by the secondary inoculation of Azotobacter, Azospirillum lipoferum, and Azospirillum brasilence (N-fixers); and Bacillus megaterium or Pseudomonas sp. (P solubilizers). These organisms, in the form of culture broth or water suspension of biofertilizer products, can be sprinkled when the decomposing material is turned after one month. By this time, the temperature of the compost has also stabilized at about 35 °C. As a result of this inoculation, the N content of straw compost can be increased by up to 2 percent. In addition to improving N content and the availability of other plant nutrients, these additions help to reduce the composting time considerably.

The Benefits of Using Composts to Agriculture

Improves the Physical Properties of Soils

Reduces the soil bulk density and improves the soil structure directly by loosening heavy soils with organic matter, and indirectly by means of aggregate-stabilizing humus contained in composts. Incorporating composts into compacted soils improves root penetration and turf establishment.
Increases the water-holding capacity of the soil directly by binding water to organic matter, and indirectly by improving the soil structure, thus improving the absorption and movement of water into the soil. Therefore, water requirement and irrigation will be reduced.
Protects the surface soil from water and wind erosion by reducing the soil-dispersion action of beating raindrops, increasing infiltration, reducing water runoff, and increasing surface wetness. Preventing erosion is essential for protecting waterways and maintaining the quality and productivity of the soil.
Helps bind the soil particles into crumbs by the fungi or actinomycetes mycelia contained in the compost and stimulated in the soil by its application, generally increasing the stability of the soil against wind and water erosion.
Improves soil aeration and thus supplies enough oxygen to the roots and escapes excess carbon dioxide from the root space.
Increases the soil temperature directly by its dark color, which increases heat absorption by the soil, and indirectly by the improved soil structure.
Helps moderate soil temperature and prevents rapid fluctuations of soil temperature, hence, providing a better environment for root growth. This is especially true of compost used as a surface mulch.

Enhances the Chemical Properties of Soils

Enables soils to hold more plant nutrients and increases the cation exchange capacity (CEC), anion exchange capacity (AEC), and buffering capacity of soils for longer periods of time after composts are applied to soils. This is important mainly for soils containing little clay and organic matter.
Builds up nutrients in the soil. Composts contain the major nutrients required by all plants [N,P,K, calcium (Ca), magnesium(Mg), and S] plus essential micronutrients or trace elements, such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), and molybdenum (Mb).
The nutrients from mature composts are released to the plants slowly and steadily. The benefits will last for more than one season.
Stabilizes the volatile nitrogen of raw materials into large protein particles during composting, thereby reducing N losses.
Provides active agents, such as growth substances, which may be beneficial mainly to germinating plants.
Adds organic matter and humus to regenerate poor soils.
Buffers the soil against rapid changes due to acidity, alkalinity, salinity, pesticides, and toxic heavy metals.

Improves the Biological Properties of Soils

Supplies food and encourages the growth of beneficial microorganisms and earthworms.
Helps suppress certain plant diseases, soil borne diseases, and parasites.
Research has shown that composts can help control plant diseases (e.g. Pythium root rot, Rhizoctonia root rot, chili wilt, and parasitic nematode) and reduce crop losses. A major California fruit and vegetable grower was able to cut pesticide use by 80% after three years of compost applications as part of an organic matter management system. Research has also indicated that some composts, particularly those prepared from tree barks, release chemicals that inhibit some plant pathogens. Disease control with compost has been attributed to four possible mechanisms:
1) successful competition for nutrients by beneficial microorganisms;
2) antibiotic production by beneficial microorganisms;
3) successful predation against pathogens by beneficial microorganisms;
4) activation of disease-resistant genes in plants by composts; and
5) high temperatures that result from composting kill pathogens.
Reduces and kills weed seeds by a combination of factors including the heat of the compost pile, rotting, and premature germination.

Economic and Social Benefits of Composting

The economic and social benefits of composting include the following:

Brings higher prices for organically grown crops.
Composting can offer several potential economic benefits to communities:
Extends current landfill longevity and delays the construction of a more expensive replacement landfill or incinerator.
Reduces or avoids landfill or combustor tipping fees, and reduces waste disposal fees and long-distance transportation costs.
Offers environmental benefits from reduced landfill and combustion use.
Creates new jobs for citizens.
Produces marketable products and a less-cost alternative to standard landfill cover, artificial soil amendments, and conventional bioremediation techniques.
Provides a source of plant nutrients and improves soil fertility; results in significant cost savings by reducing the need for water, pesticides, fungicides, herbicides, and nematodes.
Used as an alternative to natural topsoil in new construction, landscape renovations, and container gardens. Using composts in these types of applications is not only less expensive than purchasing topsoil, but it can also often produce better results when establishing a healthy vegetative cover.
Used as mulch for trees, orchards, landscapes, lawns, gardens, and makes an excellent potting mix. Placed over the roots of plants, compost mulch conserves water and stabilizes soil temperatures. In addition, it keeps plants healthy by controlling weeds, providing a slow release of nutrients, and preventing soil loss through erosion.

20+ Things You Should Never Put in Your Compost Heap

Whenever folks begin new ventures, new adventures even, the first steps always appear to be the most difficult. But when the journey has begun in all earnest, it’s amazing how much can be achieved in such a short space of time. Earth’s journey, on the other hand, has lasted for thousands of years. But in its present state, in just a short space of time, mankind has managed to turn it into, quite literally, a rubbish heap. But, against the tide of over-pollution, global warming and climate change, there are acres of hope.

Men and women across the globe in their own small ways are each doing a little bit towards drastically reducing their carbon footprints. The big question is always asked; is this enough. But the positive affirmation still remains that every little bit helps.

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Today, whether it is done in the home’s backyard or on much larger industrial scales, two key functions are being stepped up to clean up the environment. But, unfortunately, well-meaning intentions without fully understanding the consequences of what is being done, often lead to more damage.

Composting in itself is a great way to put nutrients back in the soil even if you don’t have a garden. Composting is a process via which decomposed organic materials are converted into a rich soil known as compost that helps plants grow.

According to Wikipedia,

“Compost is a key ingredient in organic farming. At the simplest level, the process of composting simply requires making a heap of wetted organic matter known as green waste (leaves, food waste) and waiting for the materials to break down into humus after a period of weeks or months.”

The rest of this article deals with those functions; the matter of recycling and manufacturing compost. The damage that needs to be reversed relates to the lack of education on how to manage these tasks properly. It also entails a more responsible, thoughtful and proactive response towards cleaning up the environment and growing things organically.

This journey here lists over twenty items, namely what should not be going into a compost bin and what should never be recycled. The first half of this article deals with a list of items that should not be added to the mix during compost manufacturing. The article closes with the list of items that should not be recycled.

Here are 20+ things that you should not throw in the compost heap.

1. Bread – In this category, cakes and pasta have been included. All forms of residue left behind are a magnetized attraction for unwanted pests.

2. Cooking oil – It is perceived as food by pests. Also, its chemical content can upset the balance of nutrients in the compost.

3. Dairy products – Like bread or grain products, these products are also a favored food source for pests and can also attract wildlife or flies.

4. Diseased plants – These carry fungus and harmful bacteria which can be transferred to the organic nutrients of the compost heap.

5. Plants that challenge and invade – Otherwise known as weeds, these plants won’t decompose but grow instead.

6. Feces – The bacterial content from both human and carnivorous animals, mainly to do with consumed meat, is hazardous which might contain pathogens.

7. Meat scraps – Apart from the bacterial hazard, contents such as blood, bones and fleshy residues are also attractive to pests.

8. Heavily coated paper – These are broadly categorized to include things such as greeting cards, magazines, and writing pads. Apart from its chemical content, its high foil content is non-compostable.

9. Coated or Printed paper – One simple trick to use as a sticky reminder is to simply never print. There is no longer a need to do this and its impact on the environment remains negative.

10. Rice – In two parts, rice is unsuitable for the compost heap. Raw rice is attractive to pests, while cooked rice is fertile ground for bacteria, potentially harmful to the compost’s nutrients.

11. Sawdust – It is not feasible to identify whether the wood has been treated with chemicals and other harmful ingredients or not. It is better not to toss sawdust into the compost heap at all.

12. Used personal items – All used personal items such as tampons and diapers are soiled with human fluids and are health hazards.

13. Tea and Coffee bags – Tea and coffee should only be added in compose pile if they are bagless. Some bags contain synthetic fibers that do not break down in a compost pile.

14. Citrus Peels, onions and garlic scraps – They should be avoided as they might scare of useful bacteria and insects or kill worms and other organisms..

15. Coal ash – It may contain so much sulfur that it may make soil excessively acidic.

16. Large branches – They take a long time to break down. It is better to cut them down into smaller pieces. The smaller the pieces, the faster they will break down.

17. Synthetic Fertilizer – Synthetic fertilizer may upset the balance of nutrients in the soil and may increase the saltiness in the soil.

18. Dead animals – They should better be buried underground.

19. Inorganic materials, such as polyester, plastic, acrylic, rubber etc – Plastic products take much longer to compost. So, it is better to keep them off your compost bins.

20. Manure from sick animals – Manure is a great product to be used in a compost pile. But this should be used only if you are sure that it hasn’t come from sick animals or from animals taking antibiotics.

21. Walnuts – They contain juglone, a natural aromatic compound considered toxic to plant life.

22. Pretty much anything that is poisonous – This should be a case of stating the obvious. Proactive measures entail checking product labels.

23. Not even torn or shredded bits of clothing – Even the tiniest bits of fiber can contain harmful substances and invariably do contain chemicals. Also, there is the question of dye from the clothing material’s colorants.

By now you may have come to realize that even the best intentions have their consequences.

In the case of creating your own compost to feed your own organic ecosystem at home, this is pertinent. With just a portion of knowledge on some of the basics, many people who don’t give much thought to how they do things at home, have yet another opportunity to pull things right. As a reader, you can help them by informing them on what needs to be done and, as is the case here, on what should never enter the compost heap.

Items That You Should Never Recycle

1. Aerosol cans – Spray cans contain far too many chemicals and are regarded as hazardous waste by authorities.

2. Boxes in general – Most boxes, amazingly at this stage, are still not adequately prepared for recycling purposes.

3. Brightly dyed paper – Apart from the potential to stain other surfaces, the colorants are still filled with toxins.

4. Batteries – They can be recycled but need to be handed into specialized depots that process these materials.

5. Ceramics – In general, none of these should be tossed out and more uses should be found for them around the home.

6. Dangerous waste – All household chemicals and motor oil are included in this category. Find out where recyclable oil is handled.

7. Medical waste – This needs to be handled carefully. Ideally, find NGO-oriented services who will dispose of waste responsibly.

8. Diapers – It already contains human feces which are hazardous to the environment. The switch must be made towards using old-fashioned, washable diapers.

9. Fruit juice containers – As with boxes in general, far too many juice containers remain unsuitable for recycling bins.

10. Glass – Tossing these into general bins is dangerous because glass breaks and sharp edges will injure people.

11. Napkins – Interestingly, these have been recommended as ideal for composting instead of recycling.

12. Wet paper – Because of water, paper fibers are damaged and considered to be a contagious risk.

13. Plastic bags – It is recommended that these be washed and re-used in the home rather than tossing them away.

14. Plastic, plastic and still more plastic – Prevention is better than cure. Far better not to buy and use plastic at all.

15. Soft or hard plastic take-out containers – When it comes to lifestyle paradigms, this is another hard sell which entails radically adjusting eating habits to promote good health as well as using far less unwarranted plastics.

16. Pizza boxes – In the same vein as boxes in general, most of these haven’t been prepared for proper recycling. Also, it’s too greasy to be cleaned.

The same goes for recycling. Most people won’t be thinking of a compost heap right now, mainly because of their living circumstances. Urban lifestyles don’t always allow for enough space to create your own organic garden.

But you would be amazed at what you can do with just a small space. If you’re living on an apartment complex, you could encourage the building’s owners to start a garden as well as a recycling depot on the building’s roof. And before he tells you that this is well-nigh impossible, a little bit of research will show both you and him that it’s being done in different parts of the country and the world.

Finally, the next time you do go shopping, think carefully what you buy so that you can avoid accumulating most of the non-recyclable waste items mentioned in the above list.

Knowledge can be empowering. And knowing what to do and when to do it is even more so. Doing the right thing makes a world of difference.

Biofertilizers are substances which contains living microorganisms which, when applied to seed, plant surfaces, or soil promotes the plants growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients. They mainly enrich the nutrient quality of soil. The main sources of biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi, and cynobacteria (blue-green algae). Plants have a number of relationships with fungi, bacteria, and algae.

Compost

Compost enrichment

The ingredients for making compost

Building the compost heap

Turning the compost heap

Watering the compost heap

Controlling pests on the compost heap

Troubleshooting the compost heap

The compost heap is damp and warm in the middle only

The compost heap is stagnant; it does not heat up at all

The matted leaves and grass clippings do not decompose

The compost heap stinks like vinegar or rotten egg

The compost heap smells like ammonia

The compost heap is attracting rats, mice, flies, etc

There are fire ants in the compost heap

The compost heap attracts insects, millipedes, slugs, etc

How to compost your garden

Contents

Fundamentals[edit]

Microorganisms[edit]

Phases of composting[edit]

Slow and rapid composting[edit]

Pathogen removal[edit]

Materials that can be composted[edit]

Organic solid waste (green waste)[edit]

Animal manure and bedding[edit]

Human waste and sewage sludge[edit]

Uses[edit]

Composting technologies[edit]

Industrial-scale[edit]

Vermicomposting[edit]

Composting toilets[edit]

Black soldier fly larvae[edit]

Bokashi[edit]

Other systems at household level[edit]

Hügelkultur (raised garden beds or mounds)[edit]

Compost tea[edit]

Worm Hotels[edit]

Related technologies[edit]

Regulations[edit]

Examples[edit]

History[edit]

Society and culture[edit]

Terminology[edit]

Composting At Home

Composting Resources

Composting Basics

Helpful Link

Benefits of Composting

How to Compost at Home

Backyard Composting

Indoor Composting

How to Build a Worm Composting Bin

Introduction

Why Compost?

How Does Composting Work?

Step 1: Choose the right composting method for you.

Step 2: Choose the right location for your compost bin.

Step 3: Decide what to compost.

Step 4: The composting process.

Step 5: Using compost around your home.

What is compost?

How can composting impact the environment?

How do you compost?

How to start composting at home:

How to compost in an apartment

Can compost go bad?

The benefits of composting:

What is a composting toilet?

Aerobic Composting

Anaerobic Composting

Vermicomposting

Small Scale Co-Composting Process and Efficient Methods

Waste Preparation

Degradation of Waste

Compost pits

Compost piles

In-vessel composting

Vermi-composting

Types of Composting