Gardening

Gardening Styles

When you plan your garden landscape there are a myriad of gardening styles and some of them are sure to grab your fancy. On the other hand you might not have any idea of what gardening style would suit your landscaping ideas. Whatever the case, allow me to mention a few of the garden styles that can be implemented in the right landscaping; maybe you'll get inspired.

The informal garden

Informal gardens tend to be large to medium sized gardens. Usually implemented on uneven landscape and even sloped to accommodate the uneven landscape. One can immediately think of the tropical or cottage type of garden as examples of informal gardens. What also comes to mind are the Japanese garden, the Mediterranean garden, container gardening, Italian, succulent, indigenous gardens, the herb garden, the vegetable garden and vegetable container gardening, patio shade, and woodland gardens, to mention a few.

Since this site is a landscape and gardening for beginners site and as such aimed at the novice and do it yourself gardener we will tend to lean more towards the informal style of gardening. The informal garden lends itself open to many possibilities and yields a more natural look and feel to a landscape or garden. You can have more than one theme in your garden and it would feel natural. In time to come we will make it our mission to publish more detailed information on different types of garden styles. For the moment however, we will mention a few.

Trench gardening

The trench garden presents the gardener with an easy method for organic gardening with health benefits for both the soil and the gardener. The creation of a trench garden will soon have you growing your own nutritious vegetables. Trench gardening can also be described as vegetable garden design in that it also facilitates design elements.

Container gardening

Gardening in containers is almost as old the practice of horticulture itself. In nurseries plants are grown in containers and pots to be sold and even later be planted in pots in gardens. Apart from the nursery practice some plants are happier in pots and can stay there for their entire lifetime. When space is a problem it cannot be used as an excuse to not grow your own vegetables as the vegetable garden can be successful implemented in container gardening.

Shade gardens

Shade gardens are essentially for the enjoyment of the outdoors in hot, sunny climates. There is nothing better than enjoying a cold drink or a picnic lunch in the cool green shade on a long hot summer afternoon. In this garden trees reign supreme. A possible area where you can sit and relax also indicates the need for garden furniture, landscape lighting and even garden statues for focal interest.

The Japanese garden and the Zen garden

The basic principles of the Japanese garden and the Zen garden are simplicity, symbolism, tranquility and minimalism. Here inspiration is taken from the simplicity of nature itself. This type of garden with its principle of minimalist simplicity fits perfectly with the restricted townhouse gardening concept. It is also a water wisegarden.

Meadow gardens

The meadow garden requires full sun, un-enriched soil and loads of patience. This type of gardening will only yield results in approximately four years as this is the amount of time it will take before a meadow forms a stable community. Seasonal interest would be the main feature in this garden.

The Cutting garden

The cutting garden is exactly what the name implies it to be. Which would you prefer – an armful of freshly picked, wonderfully scented flowers or plain and simple ordinary greenhouse grown specimens. Your garden flowers will certainly be a wonderful benefit.

Other gardens

There are also kiddies play gardens, woodland gardens, the herb garden, the rose garden, Italianate gardens, meditation gardens, flower gardens, the vegetable garden and the kitchen garden.

The formal garden

A formal graden in the French countryside

Hold on, who says we have to limit ourselves to informal gardens when we can just as successfully cultivate a formal garden?

In the formal garden plants are used in much the same way that an architect would use tiles, bricks and concrete and even wood. These gardens are usually small to medium in size, on level terrain or even terraced. It can be either classic or modern and even symmetricaland geometric shapes would not be uncommon for formal gardens. Some people might find that the symmetry and patterns of a formal garden might sooth them in an otherwise disorganized household. Geometry reigns supreme in the formal garden. Herb garden design can also be a classic, formal gardening take. When thinking of the formal garden I am immediately transported to yesteryear, or should I rather say yester century as it was the past masters of the seventeenth centuries that took the concept of formal gardening to its peak, especially the Italians, the Dutch and the French. Just think about Versailles garden, Villa Lante, Paleis Het Loo and Villa d'Este. Maybe even the English and what does come to mind here is the gardens created by "Capability" Brown and Williams Kent. Whatever you may decide, do not forget about the garden shed. All gardeners know how important a garden shed is to cultivating a garden and the garden shed do not have to be a dinghy little eye sore. Garden sheds can also be used as focal points if one is clever enough, or one could even use the landscape design to camouflage the garden shed if necessary. In fact some garden sheds that are available nowadays can be regarded as garden ornaments.

Designing a Patio

In essence a patio acts as the link, the connection point in your landscape between the home and the garden. It is ideal for outdoor living that forms an intrinsic part of life these days. It is not uncommon to hear about outdoor rooms, or outdoor living areas, or outdoor space. The patio in itself can become your outdoor room in your garden. The patio does not need to be sited off the dining room, lounge or family room. In fact there is nothing wrong with having a series of interrelated patios that can be connected by steps, or a patio area that is detached from the house but next to the swimming pool, or even a loose standing patio totally secluded in the corner of your garden. Outdoor living can happen anywhere in your garden and you should not be curtailed by the design of a specific type of patio. In this section we'll provide you with some patio ideas and patio plans you can use to design a patio. We cover three basic ideas on patio design and how to make the most of outdoor living making use of patios. The first of these patio, outdoor rooms, and outdoor living area ideas is a patio off the house, the second is a garden patio, and the third is a pool house patio.

The patio off the house

This type of patio is essentially the cohesive link, the connection point, the bridge between the house and the garden. A transitional zone that affords you the luxury of bringing the outdoors into your life, this patio, being an extension of the house can provide you with all the comforts of indoor living and at the same time allow you to enjoy your garden. A beautiful patio will encourage all your family members to spend more time outdoors, whether it is dining 'al fresco' outdoors, entertaining or even just relaxing outdoors.

Ideally the patio should not just look good from the outside; it should also look good from 'inside looking out.' When designing your patio, do not hesitate to include a focal point. This focal point can be a water feature, container plants, or even a jardinière. Fill the jardinière with container plants that will also add vertical interest in your patio area.

The flooring of your patio area must make a natural transition between the outdoors and the indoors. Wooden patio decks have always been popular, but nowadays screed flooring is highly fashionable, but tiles and slate are always worth considering. (TIP: TIP: Make sure that the materials used to construct the patio adjacent to the house blend with those used in the house.)

Climate control on the patios is an important consideration if one is to fully enjoy the 'outdoor room'. Therefore, your patio design should be accommodative to the climate in your area as well as the microclimate which influences your property. If wind is a possible problem then you could consider making use of slatted fences to deflect the wind. If the wind is a seasonal problem then a folding screen will avert the problem. If you live in an area that experiences very cold winters then one consideration could be to make provision to enclose the patio my using sliding doors or even the installation of a plug point for a patio heater.

The appropriate use of planting form an essential part of patio design. In fact it is akin to adding the finishing touches to a well-designed interior. The right choice of containers; that is the shape and size, and the right choice of plants, your patio can become your 'outdoor room'. Your patio can then take on its own unique character and not just another space.

When making use of containers, group the pots rather than dotting them all over. It will then have a greater impact, Raise the containers, place them on different levels. You could even make use of bricks to raise the containers to different levels in their groupings. Stack containers on jardinières of even benches to add height and drama in your outdoor room. Introduce some hanging baskets to provide height and vertical interest to your patio. For horizontal interest you could also consider using pebble paving in intricate designs as the focal point

If you want a low maintenance patio garden using containers, do not hesitate to make use of shrubs and grasses as they are less time consuming than annuals. Furthermore most shrubs and grasses are well-suited to large containers. Evergreen plants such as carex grass, Phormium tenax, miniature conifers or even miniature cypresses, palms (like the Phoenix sp.), ficus species and Rosmarinus officinalis will work wonderfully on a patio. If this choice of container plants is a bit too harsh for your liking, you could always soften the container edges by making use of plants that trail. These trailing container plants can include plants such as Swan River daisy, Brachycome species, the spider plant, Chlorophytum comosum, or Helichrysum petiolate, lobelia, or ivy-leaved pelargonium and cascading Petunias and Verbena. Ultimately the choice is yours to make.

The patio in the garden

There is no hard and fast rule that says that a patio should flow directly off the house. Your patio can also be situated in a sunny spot in your garden, or in a secluded shady spot in the garden. The patio design in either case would incorporate a pathway that leads off from the house to the secluded garden patio. A secluded area in your garden might just be the perfect place to unwind and enjoy your garden. This pathway can be made of any material that you fancy, or that fits in with the style of the house and the garden. Gravel of different colors arranged in an interesting pattern maybe, or paving bricks, or wooden decking, or cobblestones. Another interesting feature can be achieved by cordoning off the patio area. Make use of trellises over which climbers can be grown, or large planted-up containers, or screening shrubs cut into a hedge shape, whatever may suit your personal style. A fragrant starry wild jasmine will make an excellent choice as a climber in this case.

If you happen to live in an area that experiences hot summers, it would be a good idea to provide some protection for the garden patio in the form of a portable patio umbrella, or arbor or wooden beams like in a grape arbor with a grapevine growing over it. Make sure that the furniture you choose for your patio is practical, comfortable and weather-resistant. (TIP: TIP: Make sure that the colors and textures of the patio as well as the patio furniture is in harmony with the outdoor landscaping style and focal points and decorative accents.)

The Pool house patio

It is not always the case that one has one's pool near the house. Sometimes the pool and be a distance away from the house which makes the conditions perfect for having a pool house patio. The pool house patio can also afford you the space to install a built-in BBQ, a bar fridge as well as a built-in counter that can double up as working space to accommodate easy entertaining. Cupboards under the counters are also a great idea in the pool house patio. These cupboards will also serve as storage space for BBQ implements and utensils, crockery, cutlery and even cushions and folding chairs.

When constructing the pool house patio you should make sure that it forms a link with the garden and the house. If you however do not want a permanent structure then a thatched lapa would be ideal. On the other hand a permanent brick and mortar structure must be constructed in such a way so as to complement the style of the house and the garden. Linking the house and the pool house patio can be achieved by using a pathway. The pathway can be constructed from materials that fit the style of the house and the garden. Do not make use of paving that might become slippery when wet in the pool house patio itself. (TIP: TIP: When designing your pool house patio make sure that it does not detract from the style of the house. Ensure that unity in style is maintained.)

Sprucing up the Patio

At some point you may want to spruce up your existing patio to give it a new look or to freshen it up a bit. The following tips can help you spruce up your patio.

• Very often all that is required to spruce up a patio is to add a new coat of paint. A new coat of paint can dramatically transform your patio area into a welcoming entertainment area. Some individuals even go so far as to paint a trompe l'oeil in their patios on the walls. This creates a backdrop scene so realistic that it gives the illusion of being real.
• Maybe all you may need to do is to make new covers for the patio furniture. Bored with your cane or wooden patio furniture then perhaps a change to wrought iron furniture, of vice versa, will do the trick in getting an instant spruce up. The wrought iron furniture cushion covers can be changed to create a whole new look and feel in the patio. Always remember to opt for a choice that is practical, comfortable and weather resistant.
• Add some vertical interest to your patio by introducing a trellis, bench, wall shelving, or jardinière to show off some plants in your patio area.
• Make food preparation part of entertainment in the patio area by adding a built-in BBQ. This will pay off big rewards in adding more sociable entertaining.
• Bring the sound of water to the patio – install a water feature near the patio and enjoy the soothing sound of water tinkling. Add some colorful plants. Change the plants by making use of colorful annuals that will ensure a change of scenery every season

Better Gardening with Irrigation Systems

Water is a precious resource and in countries where water is scarce it is important to water your garden, whether you are growing vegetables, herbs or flowers or fruits, in a smart way. Successful irrigation will not only save water, but will also yield a better product from your garden. Standing in the garden with a hosepipe in the hand and watering is very inefficient and wasteful. Furthermore watering your garden hosepipe in hand has to be done frequently else you will probably end up with compacting the surface, and wetting the crust, increasing the loss of moisture from the garden soil by evaporation and with the deeper layers of soil remaining dry.

There is a certain amount of time that elapse before the water percolate to an effective depth. Most irrigation systems are designed in such a way so as to take the percolation rate of different types of soil into account when calculating the rate at which the sprinkler system delivers water to the soil. This rate is in most cases calibrated in hours rather than minutes. (TIP: When making use of sprinklers, do so at night since there is greater loss of water when you irrigate your garden during the day. Factors such as the heat of the day, wind, hot and dry conditions can amount to a 50% water loss.)

It's preferable for sprinkler irrigation systems to wet the soil to the plants' root depth. With vegetable and flower gardening it is practical to wet the garden soil to a depth of approximately 30 cm (12 inches). That should be sufficient to accommodate the bulk of the root system. That essentially means that you need to apply 30 mm (1 inch) of water. The general rule of thumb in watering is that 1 mm of water will wet 1 cm of soil. To determine the effective irrigation depth you will need to check the water depths by placing cylindrical containers such as food cans or even tumblers in the soil. Then you will be able to see how long it takes to reach a depth of 30 mm in the containers. On the following day you should dig in the area and observe the effective depth penetration. You will notice that with sandy soil you will be wetting more than in the case of clayey soil.

You should also check that there is no runoff of water to prevent wastage. Now I must admit that this measure might seem like a waste of water, but you will find that you will actually be using less water using this method than by watering with a hosepipe on a more frequent basis. The intervals between sprinkler irrigations, using the above method, are determined by temperature, humidity and maturation of the crop. It is therefore better to dig into the soil to check the moisture content and observe the condition of the leaves and flowers/fruits or visible vegetables to determine when to irrigate again.

Another factor that has to be understood for effective watering of your garden is the movement of water in the soil. Movement of water in the garden soil is dependent on and influenced by gravity and capillary action. Capillary action actually defies gravity. This can be seen in the following: if you place blotting paper in a liquid it will rise up the paper. The same phenomenon can be witnessed in soil when moisture will move upwards through minute passages or capillaries, which are the gaps that exist between the soil particles. The closer together the capillaries, the higher the water will move.

Thus the more compact the garden soils, the more moisture will reach the surface where there is the danger of the water being lost to the air. The looser the garden-soil surface, the more moisture can be conserved by the soil because the capillary action is then broken. By loosening the garden soil and by applying a layer of mulch you can preserve moisture. This mulch layer can be compost, plant residue, bark chips, even pebbles or nut shells. Loose soil in conjunction with organic material will lose less water, is thus more efficient for gardening purposes, will retain more moisture resulting in less irrigation required.

Mulching is an efficient form of water conservation that can be practiced by the home gardener. Use mulch liberally in any type of garden, vegetable garden, under shrubs, in cutting gardens, flower gardens, between garden ornaments and other forms of garden décor and wherever it is practical to cover up the garden soil so as to prevent unnecessary moisture loss.

In a Pop-up irrigation system the pipes are buried under the ground and the sprinkler is designed to pop up when the water is turned on or when the tap is opened. Also in a pop-up sprinkler irrigation system the spray from one sprinkler needs to reach as far as the next sprinkler in the system to prevent the occurrence of any dry patches when irrigating. When using this type of irrigation system make sure that you select the type of sprinkler nozzle shape that will match the shape of the garden so that only the plants are watered and not your paving for instance. A serious disadvantage of using a pop-up sprinkler irrigation system is that the spray from the sprinklers can be obstructed by elements in the garden. These elements include foliage, tree trunks or even containers. This obviously causes dry patches. Always consider these types of obstacles and the future growth of plants that are in your garden or that you intend growing in your garden during the design phase. (TIP: You can make use of risers on standpipes above the plants.)

Mist sprayers on the other hand are much less expensive and can be installed by any DIY enthusiast. If your garden is full of perennials then a mist sprayer irrigation system is an ideal choice, provided that they are high enough to be able to spray over the plants. Mist sprayer irrigation system is also excellent to use in vegetable gardening and even beds where you grow your annuals. The major disadvantage of using a mist sprayer irrigation system is that the droplets are so tiny that they can easily be blown away and thus makes it a foolhardy choice if you happen to live in a windy area. What is more is that if you have pets, like dogs, and even people working in your garden, they can easily damage your mist sprayer irrigation system. Furthermore the fine spray of this irrigation system is incapable of reaching and penetrating through dense foliage and you will undoubtedly encounter dry spots under your shrubs.

Probably the best type of irrigation to practice is drip irrigation. Drip irrigation involves the application of water to the soil beneath the plant at a very slow rate of flow. Together with a sprinkler irrigation system you will be able to save water. Drip irrigation is quite a deceptive form of irrigation in that the garden soil may appear to be dry, when in fact it has sufficient moisture. There is an onion-shaped pattern of wetting that forms below the dripper points and you should actually dig down to get an idea of how long your drippers of your drip irrigation system should stay open. It is best to purchase a good quality drip pipes that has a wall diameter of at least 0.6 mm. They may be more expensive, but it will be more beneficial to buy since it will last longer and will save you money over time and will result in fewer problems associated with leaks.

Different types of garden soil play a role in drip irrigation. Clayey, loamy and sandy soil all has a different absorption pattern. To accommodate for the differences in garden soil types, the type of tubing used in an irrigation system must be carefully selected according to the space of the emitters.

A drip irrigation system has a very complex design and installation process. A sprinkler system is so much easier to install as a do it yourself project and the drip irrigation system should preferably be done by a technically skilled and experienced technician. It is strongly recommended to make use of an irrigation specialist when contemplating the installation of a drip irrigation system for your home garden. It is also advisable to check that the specialist you hire to install your drip irrigation system is registered with the proper authorities and associations as is relevant to the area where you live.

A drip irrigation system has a high level of water efficiency because the water drips directly into the soil where the water and moisture is required. There is less wastage of water compared to the other types of irrigation systems that can be used in a garden. None of the droplets are blown away by the wind, or can evaporate without moistening the soil where it is required. The network of pipes is buried underground, or laid on top of the garden soil, covered by a layer of mulch which all makes for good gardening sense.

A drip irrigation system is the ideal type of irrigation for large shrubberies because there is no interference from the foliage and thus no dry spots. Furthermore, plants that might be vulnerable to fungal attacks benefit greatly from a drip irrigation system as the foliage does not get wet which could provide a breeding ground for fungi. Also awkwardly shaped areas in your garden, as well as narrow areas in your garden can also benefit from drip irrigation, where the conventional sprinkler irrigation system or the mist sprayer irrigation system may be wasting water by over spraying; it is not the case with a drip irrigation system.

A drip irrigation system is extremely useful in areas that are hard to reach with normal conventional irrigation systems such as sprinklers and hosepipes. Narrow beds and irregular shaped beds can effectively be irrigated using a drip irrigation system. (TIP: Many sprinkler irrigation systems can be converted to a drip irrigation system.)

Mentioned above are the different types of irrigation systems that can be used in home gardens. There is no hard and fast rule that says that you must only make use of one type of irrigation system in your garden. You could even make use of a combination of all the types of irrigation systems that will suit your garden's watering needs. Your own hybrid irrigation system that will work for you, for example, using drip irrigation in one part of the garden and a pop-up irrigation system in another section of the garden. It is best to talk to an irrigation specialist who will be able to assist you with the design and correct layout.

It is also quite important to check your water pressure before starting on an irrigation system project in your garden. If you do not have enough pressure then it could result in your irrigation system working inefficiently. On the other hand if you have too much pressure it can result in your irrigation system causing the water to atomize and be blown away. It is a good idea to divide your irrigation system into a number of circuits, rather than one huge watering circuit, with only as many sprinklers on a circuit as the water pressure can support. With clever planning the layout of your garden can work in conjunction with the concept of zoning your home garden to areas of high, medium and low water use zones. Each of these zones would then have a dedicated irrigation circuit that must service the garden.

Garden Soil and Soil Amendments

Soil layers showing the organic matter in the top layer

One of the central to the concept of gardening is that you should know the types of soil in your garden, as well as how plants grow in the soil. Plants grow by extracting nutrients, minerals and other elements, not only from the soil, but also from the air and water, which they use to manufacture carbohydrates, fats and proteins, very much like a little food factory. Sticking to the factory analogy: the "mini-factory" gets its energy from the sun, then the chlorophyll in this mini-factory use a process called photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil to form carbohydrates and oxygen. The better the quality of the soil, the better mini-factory operates.

This is where fertilizer and the the different types of fertilizer enter the gardening scene. Fertilizer has become a necessity since the soil in which the plants must grow may not always supply the plant with sufficient nutrients that are required to manufacture the carbohydrates. Furthermore, plants need adequate nutrients so that they do not become susceptible to disease and attack by insects. However, while chemical fertilizer may work wonders for your plants, they tend to damage other areas of the ecosystem and the biosphere. Therefore, I would highly recommend that you practice organic gardening and use only organic fertilizer; but the choice is ultimately yours.

Soil is important, not only for water and nutrients, but also as a medium in which the plant can anchor itself by means of its roots. The roots also require air so the soil must have some level of aeration. In essence, soil is a composition of living and dead organic matter, mineral particles, water and air. The structure of the soil is determined by the size, chemical make-up and form of the mineral particles.

Due to its size, sand particles are largest and gritty and thus take longer to break down than the other particles in the soil and they usually have relatively larger spaces between them. The sand particles do not hold water and nutrients very well. On the other hand, they provide very good aeration and thus facilitate cultivation. Clay soilretains plant nutrients well, but do not facilitate cultivation very well as they have very poor aeration. Loam soil, the so-called in-between soil, is composed of clay, sand and silt particles and is an ideal gardening soil due to the fact that it drains without drying out too quickly and contains enough air pockets to provide adequate aeration for healthy root growth. In gardening it is also good to remember that soil pH might be alkaline or acidic. (Tip: Ask at your local nursery or garden center which plants do well in your type of soil.)

In the following pages we go into the finer details of soil, the types of soils, the types of fertilizer, especially organic fertilizer and fertilizing techniques, as well as soil amendments and organic gardening and their importance for all gardeners. We also discuss how to test the soil type, using the soil triangle, how to make soil amendments using fertilizer, how to test the soil pH, and how to make compost using a compost bin, but our main focus is on organic gardening.

Testing the Soil Type

I have often found myself looking at gardening magazines and watching gardening shows and wondering: Why is my garden not performing as well as the gardening show says or as the gardening magazines claims it will be doing? The picture that I get from my garden does not even remotely resemble the pictures in the gardening magazine even if I followed all instructions to the tee. If I am lucky there might be a minute version of the plants pictured in the magazine of gardening show. Sometimes the suspicion of disease or pests might be evident, or sometimes even the thought that maybe the plants were planted in the wrong spot.

Do these gardening questions sound familiar? Well in my case this was certainly the case. Seldom did it ever occur to me that the soil could be at fault. Different types of soil are suited to different types of gardening. It seems pretty obvious, doesn't it? Now this brings me to another dilemma? How can one tell that the soil is at fault? – The solution would be to perform a soil test to make sure what soil type you have in your home garden. When it concerns soil and soil types and soil amendments, and types of fertilizers, there are many factors that affects the way in which plants will grow in a garden. What is the answer: Do I need to change all my garden soil or can I save my garden soil? Fortunately most of these factors can be measured and consequently the test results or measured results will indicate what could be wrong and right in some cases.

A quick soil test will help you work out what soil amendments are necessary to make your plants grow better. If you happen to have garden soil that is in need of serious soil amendments then you will find that it might be necessary for repeated soil testing, at least until you achieve the required soil type. Repeated soil testing should be carried out every few months to be able to see and gauge how well the garden soil has been changed.

A soil test is quite simple and you do not need much to perform it. In fact all that you may require would be the following:

The soil triangle

Equipment

• A large, straight sided glass bottle or jar with a tight fitting lid.
• One (1) teaspoon of washing powder.
• A ruler or measuring stick.
• A calculator.
• A soil sample.
• The soil triangle.

The soil test procedure

Collecting the soil sample

The first thing you need is a soil sample but How much garden soil constitutes a sample? It is best to take one or two cups of garden soil. This sample of garden soil should be taken from the middle of the garden bed that you wish to test.

• What about the size of my garden? Depending on the size of the area of the garden soil that you want to test; if it is a large area, collect smaller samples from various spots are regular intervals and make up a composite sample of garden soil to test.
• What is an accurate garden soil sample? You need to collect your garden soil sample from the root zone. This can be done by digging down into the bed and taking the soil sample from below 10 cm (3 to 3.5 inches).
• What should be included in the garden soil sample? You should leave most of the particles in your garden soil sample except for the stones and 'foreign' objects.
• What do I do with the soil sample? Place your garden soil sample in a plastic bag and do not forget to label the bags if you are collecting more than one sample.

Preparing the soil sample

Now that you have collected your garden soil sample, you can proceed to spread the soil sample out in a beer box and leave it in the sun to dry for a day. (TIP: You can also dry the garden soil sample in a warm oven.)

• Sift the soil to remove smaller stones and roots from the soil sample. The sifting will also break down lumps.
• Place enough sifted garden soil in the jar to fill it halfway.
• Add the washing powder.
• Fill the jar with water.
• Close the jar tightly and shake the garden soil sample, washing powder and water for a minute or two to combine the soap, soil and water. (The soap acts as a surfactant. A surfactant will keep the soil particles separate which will yield a more accurate test result.)
• Put the jar on a level surface and allow the sediment to settle.

You will notice that as the garden soil in the jar settles, the largest particles will settle first. (This is usually the sand.)

The next level of sediment that will settle is the silt. Silt is usually darker than the sand particles.

It will take a day or two for the clay, which is the next level of sediment, to settle. The clay is the finest particles in the garden soil. Clay is usually lighter in color than silt.

Measuring the layers of sediment

Now that your prepared garden soil sample has completely settled, you should measure the soil mass using the ruler or measuring stick. The complete measurement represents 100% of the garden soil sample.

Now you need to derive the percentages of sand, silt and clay in the garden soil sample. This can be done my measuring the amount of each of these players of sediment. Then divide it by the amount of the total sample, and then multiply the resulting figure by 100.

Once you have all the percentages of each layer of sediment or each particle of the garden soil sample, transfer the results onto the soil triangle then you will be able to determine what type of garden soil you have.

How to diagnose the fertilizer needs of your garden soil

Once you have determined what type of soil your garden has, then the next logical step would be to diagnose the fertilizer needs. There are basically four different types of tests that can be conducted to determine the fertilizer, i.e. type of fertilizer and quantity, requirements of you garden soil. These tests are field tests, pot tests, biological tests and chemical tests. Of these tests, the field tests are the most reliable, but involve a lot of time and can be quite expensive. The pot tests can be done within a limited amount of space and in a much shorter time than the field tests. However, the results may not always be helpful as the conditions of these tests are different from those in the field. The biological tests involves the growing of seedlings and other plants forms like fungi and even bacteria under specified conditions and the subsequent study of their relative growth and the content of needed nutrients. It is a slow and very expensive method of testing that has to be carried out periodically. This is not a very practical test for a home gardener to conduct. And then there is the chemical test which involves the chemical analysis of the garden soil. A chemical analysis of your soil will provide you, the gardener with information on the relative abundance or scarcity of the different types of nutrients in the soil. (TIP: Remember this chemical analysis will not provide you with the exact quantities of fertilizer that may be required to remedy your soil nutrient deficiency.) The chemical test dependability can however be improved when used in conjunction with field tests.

Fortunately for the home gardener, there are many rapid soil testing facilities and equipment available these days from garden centers, nurseries and even some hardware stores. Often one can get a clue of the nutrient deficiencies that prevail by watching the symptoms as it is manifested in the plants that you cultivate in your garden.

However, the correct diagnosis of deficiency symptoms comes after experience. The more we tinker and toil in our gardens the more we will get to know and understand our soil, soil type and fertilizer needs.

How to make soil amendments

Following up on determining what type of soil and the fertilizer needs you have in your garden, it might be necessary to make the necessary amendments so as to achieve better results in your garden. Ideally the best garden soil would be either a loamy soil or a clay loamy soil. It is thus obvious that one would try to amend one's soil towards the ideal.

Garden soil leaning towards the sandy soil side

You will need to add some clay OR at least some loamy soil to get a more balanced texture in your soil.

While adding compost may temporarily add a loamy texture to your garden soil, it will break down after time. This means that you will have to add compost to your garden beds on a regular basis so that your plants can derive the full benefit.

If you can add clay soil to your garden beds always take care not to add too much clay at a time. Clay soil has the tendency to clog together and when you do add the clay soil to your garden bed make sure to incorporate the clay well into the bed. Unblended sections of clay will clog together.

Garden soil leaning towards the clay side

It is easier to amend clay coil. In most cases you will need to amend your soil by adding plenty of organic material. Organic materials such as compost, bark chips, fine milled bark, vermiculite and river sand will break up the clay soil.

In worst cases then agricultural lime will help to break down clay soil and prevent the garden soil from becoming sticky when water comes in contact with the soil.

Garden soil leaning towards the silt side

Silt soil is also easy to amend. All that would be required to carry out silt soil amendments would be to add plenty of compost and this will result in lovely friable soil – ideal for most plants.

The Soil Triangle

The soil triangle

Part of performing a garden soil type test is to classify your garden soil as sandy, loamy, or clay. You have already calculated the percentages of each layer of sediment of your garden soil as describe in our page on garden soil testing. Now you can easily determine what type of garden soil you have by transferring the results onto the soil triangle.

This is quite easy to do. Say you have 12cm of soil in your jar or bottle, with the bottom layer of sediment being 6,8cm, the middle layer of sediment being 3,5cm and the top layer of sediment being 1,7cm.

The bottom layer of sediment is sand, which is 6,8cm high. We take 6,8 and divided by the height of the soil sample, which in this example is 12cm, and then multiply it by 100 to convert it to a percentage. This works out to approximately 57% (6.8 ÷ 12 × 100 = 56.667). Plot 57 on the bottom axis of the soil triangle (A) and draw a line parallel to the axis that plots the percentage of silt.

The middle layer of sediment is silt and is 3,5cm high in this example. We take 3,5 and divided by the height of the soil sample, and then multiply it by 100. This works out to approximately 29% (3.5 ÷ 12 × 100 = 29.167). Now we plot 29 on the left axis of the soil triangle (B) and draw a line parallel to the axis that plots the percentage of clay.

The top layer of sediment is clay and is 1,7cm high in this example. So we take 1,7 and divided by the height of the soil sample, and then multiply it by 100. This works out to approximately 14% (1.7 ÷ 12 × 100 = 14.167). Now we plot 14 on the right axis of the soil triangle (C) and draw a horizontal line across to the axis that plots the percentage of silt.

Now determining what type of garden soil we have is simply a matter of checking where the three lines intersecton the soil triangle.

In this particular example the three lines intersect in the sandy loam area of the soil triangle. We can now proceed to make the appropriate soil amendments to make our garden soil more loamy. In this particular example this can be achieved by adding some organic matter such as compost.

Organic Matter

Organic gardening is the practice of using only organic matter in your garden. Organic matter is quite diverse, it is the living and dead particles found in organic soil.

• Living particles: – these are the organisms like earthworms, insects and micro organisms such as bacteria and fungi found in organic soil. All living particles are fundamental factors in creating fertile soil.
• Dead particles: – these are the decaying remains of old, once-living plants and animals and include bird droppings, grass cuttings, leaves, and even dead, decaying animal remains.

Soil color can be very deceiving. You will find that soil color does not always indicate the fertility; and the darkest of garden soil may be poor in nutrients. Experienced gardeners perform a soil test and make the appropriate soil amendments by adding organic soil conditioners into their garden soils to encourage healthy root growth and improve soil aeration. They also maintain the soil texture by adding organic fertilizer and organic matter. For us to become good gardeners, we need to follow this example.

How does one add dead and living organic matter? Organic soil amendments like organic compost, manure, leaf mould, peat moss, sawdust, bark, etc. is the answer. The micro-organisms that occur in organic soil will break down the organic matter and will thus produce Nitrogen, Phosphate and compounds of Potassium, Calcium and other elements that are all essential for healthy plant growth. However, these micro-organisms themselves require Nitrogen, air, water and warmth. Organic compost is part of the natural cycle of plant growth, where dead and decayed organic matter is returned to the soil, broken down by micro-organisms, and is thus recycled. By adding organic compost to your garden soil you are actually imitating nature. Compost soil is fertile soil. In rare cases organic matter may not supply sufficient plant nutrients and chemical fertilizers are thus required to supplement the nutrient value of the garden soil. The key factor is to make use of organic fertilizer as much as possible and only use chemical fertilizer where organic fertilizer is insufficient.

Compost or Humus?

According to Wikipedia the definition of humus in agriculture simply means mature compost, or natural compostextracted from a forest or other spontaneous source for use to amend garden soil. Compost is regarded as the gardener's best friend and can be described as well-rotted organic matter that is absorbent, humus-rich and friable and will result in improved soil fertility, structure and water-holding capacity when applied to soil – in other words think of compost as an organic fertilizer. Incidentally compost is formed in nature all the time as plants and animals die and decompose. This natural compost is generally called humus. Dedicated, well-seasoned and good gardeners sometimes prefer making their own compost or humus while other will go and purchase commercial compost at garden centers, hardware stores, and the like to save on the time aspect of making one's one compost. You can make your own humus soil by gathering organic materials such as fruit or vegetable scraps, grass clippings, old papers and raked, fallen leaves, into a heap in a secluded part of your yard. Our page on making organic compost will provide you with more information on this, and with a recipe for compost making. You will find that compost recipes are varied and can become complicated. However you will also find that it does not take a rocket scientist to make your own compost by making use of this compost recipe. After all, this site is dedicated to the novice gardener and will stick to the simple and uncomplicated in most cases.

Benefits of compost

• Improved water retention –humus soil and organic compost will hold water well, and will also absorb water well due to its fibrous texture. This is especially beneficial for garden soil that is sandy in nature and in areas where water is a scare commodity. As mentioned in the following benefit, humus soil will also combat soil erosion. For a greener world we need to all strive towards organic gardening and being soil conservationists.
• Improved soil texture – soil compaction is prevented due to the soft, fibrous nature of organic compost. The fibrous nature of humus soil keeps the smaller soil particles apart and prevents compaction. Organic compost can also help to bind larger soil particles and prevent soil erosion and water loss, while facilitating rapid root development.
• Increased nutrient value – organic compost contains high percentages of macro- and micro-nutrients, akin to a "natural" organic fertilizer.
• Improved nutrient holding capacity – due to the nature of organic compost, the structure of the compost will allow it to hold on to nutrients which could easily be leached away in soil that is not composted or sandy soil and will thus also help in addressing drainage problems. Plenty compost thus equates increased soil fertility.
• Improved plant health – there are many beneficial micro-organisms, fungi and bacteria in organic compost that will help to break down organic matter. This then results in adding new life to soil and thus improving plant health – really in keeping with the soil conservation sentiment.

Green manure

If your budget does not allow you to indulge in spending copious amounts of money on purchasing organic fertilizer, then green manure is the answer. It is essentially a supplementary means of adding organic matter to the soil. Green manure provides a great inexpensive way to get organic matter into the soil where it is required. The types of soil that stand to gain most by green manure is the light sandy soils. Green manure is achieved by growing a crop on the site where organic matter is needed and worked directly into the garden soil without having to go via the whole process of decomposing first. The green-manure crop supplies organic matter as well as additional nitrogen. Crops like legumes are especially suited for green manure purposes. Legumes can be cut down and left as an organic mulch on the ground as well. In this way the green manure crops also perform a protective action against erosion and leaching.

The best legumes to use as green manure are the lupins, beans, cowpeas, alfalfa, clover, cereals grains like oats and Italian rye grass. Green manure plants are usually grown for a season and just after the first flowers before seeds are formed, these plants are worked into the garden soil. However for the proper rotting of the green manure, it is essential that the green manure crop should be succulent and there should be adequate moisture in the soil. When incorporating a green manure crop into your garden soil when the crop is at the flowering stage, you will allow for the quick liberation of nitrogen in the available form. This is mainly due to the fact that all plants at the flowering stage contain the greatest bulk of succulent organic matter with a low carbon to nitrogen ratio.

Mulch

Organic Mulch

Organic mulch is quite a loose term that describes coarse organic compost or organic matter that is spread over the surface of the soil. Organic mulch can consist of materials such as compost, peat moss, leaves, grass clippings, bark chips, nutshells, decomposed animal manure, pine needles, wood shavings, sawdust and even straw. Organic mulching holds a multitude of benefits.

Benefits of mulching

• Organic mulch adds organic matter to depleted garden soil.
• Organic mulching increases microbial activity.
• Organic mulching serves as protection against harsh sunlight that dries out the soil, and against soil erosion.
• Organic mulching reduces the need for irrigation as it preserves soil moisture.
• Organic mulch acts as a weed deterrent because it inhibits the growth of unwanted plants.
• Organic mulch protects plants from cold damage as it acts like a blanket.
• Organic mulch is visually appealing since it makes the garden look neat and cared for.
• Organic mulch is also beneficial in that it increases crop production and helps to cultivate chemical free food with higher nutritional value.

You should however take care that the materials used for mulching is dry and old. As far as possible avoid making use of thick layers of green materials such as leaves as it will draw nitrogen away from the plants that are being mulched. Your plants need nitrogen as it is required for green growth. Only incorporate well-rotted, old mulch into the garden soil.

Inorganic Soil Amendments

Inorganic soil amendments are used to supplement the organic matter that is already in the soil. It is meant to improve the texture of clay soil, and help sandy soil by increasing the sandy soil's capacity to retain water and nutrients. In a nutshell it is meant to make clay soil and sandy soil more like loam soil in texture and character. Vermiculite/ Peat, and perlite are examples of inorganic soil amendments. Both are used to improve the water and nutrient retention of the soil. Vermiculite/Peat and perlite are usually used on small scale in potting soils and small plant beds.

Other inorganic soil amendments include lime and gypsum. Both these inorganic soil amendments are used to improve the quality and texture of clay soil. They do this by causing the clay particles to group together into larger units which further results in improved aeration and drainage. These inorganic soil amendments can become an invaluable part of your drainage system in your backyard landscaping because water drainage can be a very important factor in determining the types of plants that you will be able to cultivate successfully.

The use of gypsum and lime is determined by the soil pH. In areas with high rainfall and especially in acid soil, lime is used as the inorganic soil amendment of choice. Lime alters the soil pH to make the garden soil less acidic and supplies calcium to the soil. In areas with low rainfall and usually neutral or alkaline soil, gypsum is the inorganic soil amendment of choice as it supplies both calcium and sulfur to make your garden soil less alkaline.

Checking your soil pH

As a gardener, even if you’re a novice gardener, you can never take for granted that the essential elements present in a soil will automatically be available to your plants. Availability of these elements is dependent on the soil pH level. Plants need the correct pH (acidity/alkalinity) level which controls how well plants utilize the nutrients available in the garden soil. Most garden plants thrive in soil that measures 6.0 to 7.0 on the pH scale as it is at this level that all essential elements present in the garden soil are readily available to the plants.

You can have your soil pH checked by a professional or you could invest in a good soil pH tester and test the pH level of your soil on a regular basis. Soil test kits are available for purchase from garden centers and most leading nurseries; alternatively they might even offer soil testing services by supplying their own soil testers on contract. Soil acidity and alkalinity is measured on a scale of 0.0 (very acidic) to 14.0 (very alkaline). Soil that measures 7.0 on the pH is scale is neutral soil. Soil that measures 7.5 or higher on the pH scale is alkaline and soil with a pH of 4.0 and 5.0 are regarded as acid soil.

All plants have a pH preference. Roses for instance have special preference for slightly acid soil and thus it is important to know the pH level of your soil. You can then choose plants with the same pH preferences, avoid those that will not do well in your garden soil, or know how to go about supplying their special growing needs. By testing your soil pH, you determine its condition so that you can adjust the soil pH more accurately, effectively and economically.

Adjusting the soil pH

Lowering the soil pH basically means using inorganic soil amendments to acidify alkaline soil. The best way to acidify alkaline soil is to make use of Sulfur or "Flowers of Sulfur" as it is also known. Sulfates in the form of Iron Sulfate or Aluminum Sulfate (alum) or Ammonium sulphate can be used to lower the soil pH. Apart from inorganic soil amendments to lower soil pH, you can also make use of organic soil amendments in the form of peat moss, leaf mold, and well-composted sawdust to lower the soil pH. Lime is generally used to correct soil acidity, as well as to improve the physical condition of the soil and also encourage bacterial activity. In much the same vein, gypsum is used for reclaiming 'alkali' soils or land from the sea and improving the structure of heavy black clay soils. Hence, the term soil amendments when referring to treating the garden soil with these materials to adjust the pH level.

Raising the soil pH basically means to make acid soil more alkaline. It is best to make use of agricultural lime or dolomite to lower the pH level of acid soil. The Calcium Carbonate in agricultural lime or dolomite will not react with fertilizer when applied at the same time. A word of caution though — you may make use of slaked lime, but the calcium hydroxide in slaked lime will definitely react with fertilizer and might result in bad side effects.

Now, over the years many myths relating to garden soil and pH have found its way into the gardening sphere. All gardeners are well-meaning and these myths were not really meant to harm the garden soil and the plants, but these myths have unfortunately led to some damage in many a well-meaning gardener's domain.

Adjusting the Soil pH for Acid-loving Plants

Gardeners used to say that you need to fertilize acid-loving plants with peat and often one could find gardeners buying bags of peat and fertilizing their plants like Azaleas and Camellias with peat. Peat is NOT a fertilizer nor is it a fertilizer type. Peat is chemically inert with none or little nutrient value for plants. Peat does not feed plants. In fact peat is an inorganic soil conditioner that consists of compressed fibres of bog mosses. Peat can be added to soil and soil mixes for many reasons. These reasons being:

• Peat has an acidic pH. Peat can thus be used to lower the pH of alkaline soil. Peat is thus used as a soil amendment for alkaline soil.
• Peat has excellent moisture retention and nutrient retention properties. This means that peat can be used to keep soil moist and to hold valuable food for plants. This makes peat a valuable soil amendment in areas where water is scarce and places with hot and dry climates. Since most acidic plants have fine surface roots they need to be kept from drying our and peat will do well as an inorganic soil amendment.
• Peat is lightweight and makes an excellent additive to potting soil.

Acid loving plants, like all other plants require feeding. Fertilizer is thus essential. Under the usual circumstances a basic fertilizer would suffice, especially a basic fertilizer such as a 3:1:5 Slow Release Fertilizer. However, in alkaline soil it would be best to make use of specifically formulated types of fertilizers for acid-loving plants. At nurseries and garden centers you will come across these specialized types of fertilizers such as: Wonder Azalea, Wonder Camellia and Wonder Hydrangea fertilizers. In some cases you might even get a type of fertilizer specially formulated for most acid-loving plants. The one aspect these types of fertilizers have in common is that they all contain sulphur and ammonium sulphate, both which serve to lower the pH of alkaline soil.

Using Pine Needles and Pine Bark

Most people and gardeners used to believe that pine needles and pine bark will result in rendering garden soil acidic. And in general most gardeners used to believe that any part of any coniferous tree will subsequently be acidic.

However, in its raw state, all coniferous trees are not acidic. This means that the pine needles that gardeners use to apply as mulch on top of soil around a plant, or even in the planting hole will not alter the pH of the garden soil. In fact it is only AFTER the pine needles have been properly composted that it will result in changes in the pH of your garden soil.

Nowadays it is not surprising that the seasoned gardeners have found that pine needles and pine bark do not break down into compost easily. It is quite a lengthy process if you want to incorporate pine and pine products into the ingredients of your compost recipe. This is thus also the reason why pine needles and pine bark makes for excellent, good, long, lasting mulch that will keep the soil moist and cool the roots of plants.

This means that pine needles and pine bark is not great additives to use as soil amendment when you want to alter the pH of your garden soil. You would serve your garden far better by making use of good compost which generally has an acid pH. Thus if you want to change the pH of your soil, you should rather plant with a good compost or acidic peat.

If you need to lower the alkaline level of your garden soil to make your soil more acidic then you should plant with plenty of good compost, or use an acidic soil/compost mixture which has the advantage of composted bark incorporated into the mixture.

Garden Soil Under Pine and Coniferous Trees

Many gardeners used to believe that the soil under pine trees or coniferous trees is too acidic to grow any plants in. They have this believe due to the poplar believe that the pine needles that get dropped by the pine tree makes the soil acidic. This is simply not true. Even acid loving plants such as Azaleas, Camellias and Fuchsias will not readily grow in acidic soil under a pine tree.

The fact of the matter is that the main reason why even acid loving plants will not grow well under a pine tree or a coniferous tree is that those treesare fast growing trees and as such are thus greedy feeders. They take up most of the water and valuable nutrients in the soil. To compound the problem for other plants even more, coniferous and pine trees have a large network of fibrous roots and the smaller plants do not stand a chance. This is also true of other fast growing trees and not only of the pine trees and coniferous trees.

However, it might be an eyesore not to be able to grow any kind of plants under pine and coniferous trees. There is a way to remedy the situation. First dig out as much soil around the base of the tree as possible. Then spread a layer of black plastic, punch a few holes in the plastic for drainage and fill in the new garden bed with good soil. All shade loving plants will then be able to grow under a pine or coniferous tree simply because you would be helping them by taking the competition it would have with the pine or coniferous tree for water and nutrients out of the equation. Alternatively you could create a raised garden bed with walls of brick or even railway sleepers in which to grow your shade-loving plants.

Keeping soil healthy

Keeping soil healthy is an essential part of gardening. The materials, i.e. the types of fertilizer, most often used in most areas where cultivation takes place, to maintain and improve soil fertility may be classified as follows:

1. The natural, organic fertilizer types in the shape of manures. These are usually the relatively bulky fertilizer types, like animal or green manures. Animal and the green manures are usually added to garden soil to; not only improve the physical condition of the soil, but also to replenish and keep up its humus status, as well as to maintain the optimum conditions for the activities of soil micro-organisms and make up some amelioration to a small part of the plant nutrients removed by crops or otherwise lost through leaching and soil erosion. The plant-nutrition that can be found in manure is released in an available form after it is applied to the soil and is decomposed by soil micro-organisms. Similarly, the green manures add not only substantial amounts of organic matter but also nitrogen.
2. The chemical, inorganic fertilizers. Fertilizers are inorganic materials of a concentrated nature; they are applied mainly to increase the supply of one or more of the essential nutrients, e.g. nitrogen, phosphorous and potash. Fertilizers contain these basic elements either in soluble or readily available chemical compound form and can usually be purchased from commercial sources such as garden centers, nurseries, and the like.
3. The concentrated organic manure fertilizer types. This fertilizer type is comprised of concentrated materials, such as oil-cakes, bone-meal, urine and blood. It is important for the home gardener to remember that the use of manures and fertilizers is complimentary and should not be viewed as a substitute for each other.
4. The bulky organic manure type of fertilizers. the properties and role of organic matter and humus in the soil have been explained already in our organic matter page.

Organic gardening

Organic Gardening has become a real buzz word and it is no surprise since people have become more aware of nature conservation, health and health issues and how interlinked all aspects of human life is. In essence organic gardening is a return to more natural practices without using any refined chemical soil amendments like chemical fertilizer, fungicides, pesticides and herbicides, especially the one that can be harmful to nature. These harmful side effects are manifested as residues in soils, water, on crops and the atmosphere.

The idea with organic gardening is to strive to keep the soil healthy and make use of natural measures such as crop rotation, companion planting and biological control. This means that it becomes important to put as much organic matter as possible back into the soil and control weeds by mulching and removing them physically. The control of weeds is important since these weeds may be harboring pests and diseases. All diseased plant material should also be destroyed to avoid contamination of a compost heap for instance. Weak and stressed plants are also much more susceptible to pests and disease and should as a result be avoided by making the right decisions when choosing plants for the area where you intend making your garden.

To achieve the ideal garden soil structure, we should strive to maintain high levels of organic matter in the garden soil which will encourage micro-organisms to supply nutrients to plants via the plant roots. Organic mulching also becomes important in that regular mulching will prevent bare soil patches where the garden soil will be exposed to sunlight, and do not cultivate the soil too much. Organic matter results in improved soil texture and moisture retention.

Organic fertilizer is also readily available from local nurseries and garden centers. Most organic fertilizer is formulated to target the deficiencies that might occur due to a lack of basic nutrients such as Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potassium and even some of the micro or trace elements. The Nitrogen rich organic fertilizers usually contain dried blood, hoof-and-horn meal, bone meal and composted chicken, sheep and goat manure. Other organic fertilizer include fish meal to supplement the major macro nutrients; rock phosphate to supplement phosphorous, calcium and micro nutrients; bone meal to supplement phosphorous; wood ash to supplement potassium; gypsum and lime to supplement calcium; and seaweed meal to supplement potassium and micro nutrients.

Pest and disease control

In practicing organic gardening we need to take the concept further than mere soil amendments by means of organic fertilizer. We also need to practice pest and disease control in a manner consistent with organic gardening, which means implementing organic pest control and using organic pesticides.

Crop rotation

Marigold can beused for crop rotationin the home garden

In some cases problems do occur if the same type of plant is grown in the same soil season after season. The garden soil will then be vulnerable to the pests and diseases that thrive on that particular crop. Furthermore those pests and disease have the opportunity to multiply exponentially. The most fundamental rule of crop rotation is also the simplest: never plant the same thing in the same place twice. The aim of rotation is threefold: to balance nutrient demands, foil insect and disease attacks, and deter weeds. Working out rotations can be fascinating work. With nutrient rotation the aim is to find the balance between the nutrient demands that each crop makes on the garden soil. The strategy here would be to divide the crops into four types, depicting the four different seasonal rotations as follows:

• Leave crops like lettuce, salad greens, spinach, chard, broccoli, cauliflower, chicory, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, kale and kohlrabi; all the crops that will thrive on Nitrogen.
• Fruit crops like pumpkins, squash, cucumbers, zucchini, melons, tomatoes, peppers and eggplants; all the crops that thrive on Phosphorous.
• Root crops like onions, garlic, shallots, carrots, beets, radishes, turnips, leeks and scallions; all the crops that thrive on Potassium.
• Soil building and cleaning crops like legumes are great for storing Nitrogen from the air and releasing it into the soil. Cleaning crop examples are corn and potatoes, and builder crop examples are beans and peas.

(TIP: In the first season plant the leafy crops, follow this by planting the fruit crops, then the root crops and then the legumes.)

Another aspect of crop rotation is prevention rotation. Crop rotation also serves to break the cycles of pest and disease problem that can build up in garden soil as a result of planting the same crop season after season. Again the golden rule would be to never plant the same thing in the same place twice so that no two crops that are subject to the same type of diseases follow one another within the disease's incubation period. The same argument holds true for the control of insect pests because crop rotation makes it harder for the emerging insects to find their preferred food. Different plant types attract different pests, so by rotating legumes, root crops and leafy crops the pests' life cycle gets interrupted and if they do survive then they do not have enough time to multiply and become a serious problem.

Crop rotation is also a form of organic weed control. If shallow rooted plants like lettuce or cabbages are alternated with deep-rooted plants like tomatoes then the plants' roots are permitted to loosen the soil that would under other circumstances had to be done manually.

This is the generally accepted notion of crop rotation as it is practiced by agriculturalists and commercial farmers; however, since our focus is the home garden, we will need to adapt the generally accepted notion of crop rotation to suit the needs of the home garden. There is one major pest that manages to surpass prevention crop rotation: the dreaded eelworm. The eelworm can overwhelm all other pests in its impact on a vegetable home garden because the home gardener will feel the impact of on eelworm infestation so much more than the large scale commercial farmer since there are fewer commercially available chemicals to control eelworms. On commercial farms certain legumes and grasses are left in the soil for many years to improve the quality of the soil, the fertility of the soil and improved structure of the soil for more valuable crops to follow. This solution may not work for the home garden. In your home vegetable garden you may not always have years to wait for soil to improve, you need a more rapid solution. Adding compost and manures to your garden soil will improve the organic content of your garden soil and thereby improve the garden soil's physical condition and fertility. This is important as eelworm infestations can be stemmed by healthy organic soil. In some cases more than two-thirds of homegrown vegetables can suffer damages caused by eelworms. Eelworms thrive in warm conditions and sandy soil. So if you want to practice crop rotation in your home vegetable garden, you must make sure to base your crop rotation as determined solely by the resistance and susceptibility to eelworms.

In areas where the usual notion of crop rotation does not have the desired effect, in other words the areas where the climate aids pests and diseases, one has to practice the type of crop rotation most appropriate to the circumstances and conditions that are prevailing. First and foremost it would be advantageous to recognize eelworm. There is a wide variety of eelworm infestations that can take place. The most common is the root-knot eelworm. This is a microscopic worm that penetrates the root tips and results in swelling and grossly distorted root systems. A vegetable crop like carrots will show the manifestation of this type of eelworm easily. Any carrots that have forked roots and lumps on the root system will indicate an eelworm infestation. In cases where the eelworm infestation is heavy, the carrot crop will be rendered useless. Eelworms can increase their numbers so rapidly, and in cases where a susceptible crop follows, even with the practice of crop rotation, the results will be disastrous. By selecting a crop rotation that includes a follow-up crop that is eelworm resistant, you can starve the eelworm population. In essence you would be reducing the eelworm food and then their numbers will decline accordingly. By practicing a crop rotation with eelworm resistant crops, you can keep eelworm populations under control and under manageable levels.

Under the usual notion of crop rotation, one would be planting a legume crop (e.g. beans), follow it up with a root crop (e.g. carrots), and then with a leaf crop that is totally unrelated (e.g. spinach). This type of crop rotation would be totally wrong for the home vegetable garden if you have an eelworm infestation. You are bound to end up with a massive infestation that increases exponentially since these crops are all highly susceptible to eelworm. At the end of the rotation of these crops you will end up with a total crop failure. Crop rotation in such a case should rather be carried out using eelworm resistant crops such as garlic, leeks, onions, shallots, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli and even some tomato and lettuce varieties. Below are a few more tips on crop rotation:

• Together with the proper crop rotation as you garden soil may dictate, you could also reduce eelworm infestation by making use of compost and manures to increase the organic content of your soil. With healthy soil conditions the bacteria and fungi are able to survive and attack the eelworm.
• You could also plant marigolds (khakiweed, stinking roger, Tagetes species) in rotation and work the plants into the garden soil when they flower.
• You could also cover a section of the moist garden soil with a clear plastic sheet during hot weather and after a couple of weeks; you will have managed to sterilize your garden soil. Then the soil would be free of eelworms and ready for your vegetable crops.
• Remember that the best solution will vary from garden to garden due to the different types of soil, the different types of crops that are cultivated, and the different climatic conditions that are prevalent in those areas. The best advice at this stage is that one must learn to examine the root systems of one's vegetable crops and always be aware of the world's biggest, microscopic pest. I say biggest because the eelworm most often goes unnoticed and when you may start to think that you do not have green fingers, it could in fact only be an eelworm infestation that is thwarting you vegetable crop cultivation.

Companion planting

Petunia: a good companion plant in vegatable gardens

Companion planting essentially refers to the planting of different crops in close physical proximity according to Wikipedia. This is another form of organic pest control. By simulating plants in nature in having a variety of different plants growing together the problem of pests and diseases can be avoided. Certain plants attract useful insects such as parasitic wasps and others deter harmful insects. On another level companion planting also means the grouping of plants with different root lengths and light requirements together so that they complement each other and not compete for the same resources. Companion planting is great for the environment in that are also acts as a means to mitigate the decline of biodiversity. The typical cottage garden is an excellent example of companion planting. Organic gardening depends heavily on companion planting for its best performance. Apart from being central to organic gardening, companion plants can benefit each other as follows:

• Enhancing flavor – some plants, especially herbs, seem to subtly change the flavor of other plants around them.
• Hedging investment – multiple plants in the same space increase the odds of some yield being given, even if one category encounters catastrophic issues.
• Interaction between different levels – plants which grow on different levels in the same space, perhaps providing ground cover or working as a trellis for another plant.
• Fixing Nitrogen – plants which fix nitrogen in the ground, making it available to other plants.
• Positive hosting – attracts or is inhabited by beneficial insects or other organisms which benefit plants, as with ladybugs or some "good worms".
• Organic pest control – plants which repel insects, plants, or other pests like nematodes or fungi, without relying chemical pest control.
• Protective sheltering – one plant type of plant may serve as a wind break, or shade from noonday sun, for another.
• Trap cropping – plants which attract pests away from others.
• Pattern disruption – with one type of crop, pests can quickly and easily spread from one plant to the next. Companion plants interrupt this spread.

As mentioned, an aspect to companion planting in that it not only serves as companion plants, it also acts as organic pest control. Since some plants have the ability to repel harmful insects and even attract useful insects by giving off scent. An example is citric companion planting. By growing citrustrees such as lemon, lime, grapefruit, kumquat or tangerine in full sun will protect them from frost. If you are to plant comfrey nearby as companion plants you will ensure that the citrus trees thrive as the comfrey will fix nitrogen in the soil. On the other hand you can also plant lavender as companion plants to citrus trees as the lavender will keep aphids and whitefly away. As a bonus the citrus peels, skins and leaves can be rubbed onto window sills to deter flies and mosquitoes.

With trap copping the Nasturtium proves to be an excellent example. Nasturtiums has all the properties of being the perfect companion plant for crops like broad beans, broccoli, cabbage, cucumber, corn, pomegranate, quince, radish, and tomato as it will trap whitefly, aphids and red spider mite. The added bonus with Nasturtiums is that the fresh leaves, flowers and seeds can be added to the diet to help treat chest ailments, nasal congestion and even emphysema. Try pickled seeds and leaves to fight colds and flu (influenza).

Another example of excellent companion plants are Rosemary and Parsley. Rosemary is a strong perennial that benefits plants like cabbage, beans and carrots as companions since it has discourages snails, slugs, caterpillars and cutworms. Rosemary is full of surprises and also acts as an organic insecticide if one brushes and rub the branches of rosemary on windowsills, countertops, wooden tables and legs of chairs it releases its powerful oils that chases away flies, fleas, mosquitoes, ants and weevils as well as moths. Rosemary and parsley will also be a great companion for roses as it repels aphids as well. (TIP: Do not plant carrots with dill or cabbage with tomatoes, or runner beans or strawberries as they do not make good companions.) Planting parsley under rose bushes in a circle around the base of the rose bush will decrease garden pests such as aphids and even black spot. Parsley also have the added bonus of boosting growth and enhancing flavors and fragrant in the roses and vegetables crops such as asparagus, beans, broccoli, carrots, celery, kale, lettuce, spinach, strawberries and tomatoes.

The Petunia, a very popular flower in many home gardens, also makes for a beautiful and very showy companion plant in many vegetable gardens. Petunias will be beneficial to vegetable crop cultivation such as broccoli, broad bean, cauliflower and lettuce. You will notice the decreased numbers of pests such as whitefly, aphids, cutworms and beetles when using Petunias as a companion plant to these vegetable crops. As an alternative, another companion plant that will have the same effect is the Nicotiana flowers. Nicotiana flowers are after all a close cousin to Petunias.

With companion planting you will most definitely not require so many harmful and toxic sprays, dangerous chemical compounds and chemical fertilizers. It makes economic and ecological and pet-friendly sense to make use of companion planting. The natural, organic way always proves to be the safest and most effective solution.

Biological / organic pest control

Thoughts of garden pests conjures of images of Aphids, worms and caterpillars, spider mites, thrips, greenhouse whiteflies, flies, mealybugs, sweet potato whiteflies, mosquitoes, fire ants, grasshoppers, broadmites, and so on. Organic pest control of insects and mites can be accomplished by using their natural enemies against them. This is one of the oldest and most successful methods of pest control. Beneficial insects are harmless to people, plants, and animals. They are born to hunt, capture, and consume your pest insects. For us organic pest control is the introduction and encouragement of natural predators and pathogens to suppress certain insect pests. The ladybird beetle is probably the most common example of the predatory control of aphids. The praying mantis is also quite a useful insect. We need to be able to identify insects and their various stages in their different life cycles in which they come due to their metamorphosis. This will help to distinguish them from the enemy pests. Furthermore, if we want these useful insects to patrol our gardens, then we better make sure that we provide shelter and food for them.

Plant Nutrition

Plants require nutrients to grow and develop, much the same like people. We eat so our bodies can get the vital nutrients and minerals to grow healthy. This brings to mind the saying "you are what you eat" and it is the same with plants. Poor feeding and low nutrient levels will result in poor or diminished growth and low food, flowering and fruit production. As mentioned in our page on keeping soil healthy, we need to supplement the nutrient value of the garden soil by making soil amendments in the form of adding fertilizers, preferably organic fertilizer. These nutrients include Carbon, Nitrogen, Calcium, Hydrogen, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Oxygen, Potassium, Sulphur, Iron, Zinc, Chlorine, Manganese, Boron, Copper, and Molybdenum. Soil is the most important source of plant food.

These nutrients, present in both chemical and organic fertilizer comes in two major categories: macro elements and micro elements.

Macro elements

Macro elements refer to the main elements that are required by the plant for its basic functioning. These main elements are:

• Oxygen and Hydrogen which can be found readily available in water as well as the air.
• Nitrogen and Carbon which can be found in the air and in organic soil. (Especially the carbon dioxide present in the air.)
• Potassium and Phosphorous which can also be found in organic soil.

Of these macro elements Carbon, which is obtained from carbon dioxide of the air; Oxygen, which is obtained from air and water; and Hydrogen, which is obtained from water, are required by plants to build its basic cell structure. Thus it is most fortunate that these elements are the most commonly found elements and are required by all living creatures, therefore it is seldom that you need to provide additional carbon, oxygen or hydrogen. Potassium, Phosphorous and Nitrogen, on the other hand, are usually lacking and supplements of these need to be provided for the plants. These are thus the main ingredients in the most basic chemical and organic fertilizer.

Nitrogen (N)

The role of Nitrogen in plants cannot be emphasized enough; Nitrogen encourages development of plants, it is responsible for healthy green leaf growth which is the result of the formation of chlorophyll, which is the main unit for the production of carbohydrates, proteins and oxygen. Therefore, plants that exhibit a Nitrogen deficiency will show symptoms like stunted growth and pale green and yellow leaves. There are also claims that Nitrogen controls, the efficient utilization of phosphorous and Potassium. The plant's dependency on Nitrogen can also lead to retarded root growth and resulting in the foliage turning yellow and pale green and increasing the plant’s susceptibility to disease.

Phosphorous (P)

Phosphorous is responsible for cell development and the promotion of good root growth, particularly in fibrous roots, the vigor of the plant. Plants that suffer from a phosphorous deficiency will have poor root development and show symptoms like stunted growth, though it is not as easily recognizable at those symptoms of Nitrogen deficiency. Phosphorous deficiency is also manifested in the leaves that turn purplish in color when it is not the natural foliage or leaf color of that plant, mainly due to the abnormal increase in the sugar content and the formation of anthocyanin.

Potassium (K)

Potassium is responsible for chlorophyll formation which plays an important part in the strength of cells and encourages flower and fruit formation. Thus Potassium can enhance the ability of the plant to resist plant diseases, insect attacks and cold conditions as Potassium performs a vital role in the formation of starch as well the production and translocation of sugars in the plant. Plants that exhibit symptoms of Potassium deficiency will have like weak stems. Other symptoms of Potassium deficiency include older leaves that are floppy with yellow tips and brown margins.

A note of caution though; an excess of Potassium may tend to delay maturity, though, not to be the same extent as an excess of Nitrogen.

Secondary macro elements

There are also secondary macro nutrients such as Calcium, Magnesium and Sulfur.

Calcium (Ca)

Calcium is responsible for the construction of cell walls and promoting proper functioning of growing tissue. Fortunately Calcium occurs naturally in organic soil and there is usually no need for any calcium supplements to be added to organic garden soil. A Calcium deficiency in soil only coccurs in extremely acid soil. This is why most plants struggle to grow in acid soil. Usually, treating and amending the soil pH level will alleviate the Calcium deficiency.

Magnesium (Mg)

Magnesium (Mg) also occurs naturally in organic soil which usually makes adding any magnesium supplements to garden soil rather superfluous. Magnesium deficiency symptoms are manifested as the yellowing of older leaves. Magnesium is part of chlorophyll and thus plays a role in photosynthesis.

Sulfur (S)

Sulfur (S) or Flowers of Sulfur as it is known also occur naturally in organic soil. Most chemical and organic fertilizer also contains Sulfur which makes Sulfur deficiency very rare. If Sulfur deficiency does occur, it shows up in the form of stunted growth and yellow foliage, much the same as nitrogen deficiency as Sulfur forms part of plant protein and plays a role in the formation of chlorophyll.

Micro elements

Micro elements are also known as trace elements and sometimes people even call them the "multi vitamins" for plants. The micro elements of plants are made up of Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), Manganese (MN), Boron (B), Molybdenum (Mo) and Copper (Cu). A Molybdenum deficiency produces whip-tail in some vegetable crops such as cauliflower, broccoli and other Brassica species. The Molybdenum deficiency will reduce the activity of the symbiotic and non-symbiotic nitrogen-fixing micro-organisms. A Boron deficiency can manifest itself in varying forms that are dependent on the type of plants and the age of the particular plants afflicted with the deficiency, the particular type of conditions in which the plants is cultivated, etc. Each type of crop produces its characteristic growth abnormalities associated with boron deficiency: a few examples can be seen as the die-back and corking of apples, the yellowing and resetting of Lucerne crops and related grass type crops, the corking and pitting of tomatoes, even the hollow stem and bronzing of curd in brassica types, etc. It is seldom that a micro element deficiency occurs. Many plant food formulations contain these trace elements. However, if there is a deficiency it is normally manifested as discolored foliage, poor leaf maturation and poor fruiting.

To prevent all these deficiencies from ruining your garden experience and to ensure healthy growth and abundant flowering and fruiting you should make sure that your garden has all twelve of these elements available to them. By practicing organic gardening and keeping your garden soil healthy these deficiencies are addressed by means of organic soil amendments.

What is organic farming / organic farming concept and development

What is organic farming?

Organic farming system in India is not new and is being followed from ancient time. It is a method of farming system which primarily aimed at cultivating the land and raising crops in such a way, as to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic wastes (crop, animal and farm wastes, aquatic wastes) and other biological materials along with beneficial microbes (biofertilizers) to release nutrients to crops for increased sustainable production in an eco friendly pollution free environment.

As per the definition of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) study team on organic farming “organic farming is a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives etc) and to the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection”.

FAO suggested that “Organic agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity, and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods in exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs”.

Need of organic farming

With the increase in population our compulsion would be not only to stabilize agricultural production but to increase it further in sustainable manner. The scientists have realized that the ‘Green Revolution’ with high input use has reached a plateau and is now sustained with diminishing return of falling dividends. Thus, a natural balance needs to be maintained at all cost for existence of life and property. The obvious choice for that would be more relevant in the present era, when these agrochemicals which are produced from fossil fuel and are not renewable and are diminishing in availability. It may also cost heavily on our foreign exchange in future.

The key characteristics of organic farming include

• Protecting the long term fertility of soils by maintaining organic matter levels, encouraging soil biological activity, and careful mechanical intervention
• Providing crop nutrients indirectly using relatively insoluble nutrient sources which are made available to the plant by the action of soil micro-organisms
• Nitrogen self-sufficiency through the use of legumes and biological nitrogen fixation, as well as effective recycling of organic materials including crop residues and livestock manures
• Weed, disease and pest control relying primarily on crop rotations, natural predators, diversity, organic manuring, resistant varieties and limited (preferably minimal) thermal, biological and chemical intervention
• The extensive management of livestock, paying full regard to their evolutionary adaptations, behavioural needs and animal welfare issues with respect to nutrition, housing, health, breeding and rearing
• Careful attention to the impact of the farming system on the wider environment and the conservation of wildlife and natural habitats

Principles of Organic Farming

The four principles of organic agriculture are as follows:

Principle of health

Organic Agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal, human and planet as one and indivisible.

This principle points out that the health of individuals and communities cannot be separated from the health of ecosystems - healthy soils produce healthy crops that foster the health of animals and people.

Health is the wholeness and integrity of living systems. It is not simply the absence of illness, but the maintenance of physical, mental, social and ecological well-being. Immunity, resilience and regeneration are key characteristics of health.

The role of organic agriculture, whether in farming, processing, distribution, or consumption, is to sustain and enhance the health of ecosystems and organisms from the smallest in the soil to human beings. In particular, organic agriculture is intended to produce high quality, nutritious food that contributes to preventive health care and well-being. In view of this it should avoid the use of fertilizers, pesticides, animal drugs and food additives that may have adverse health effects.

Principle of ecology

Organic Agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain them.

This principle roots organic agriculture within living ecological systems. It states that production is to be based on ecological processes, and recycling. Nourishment and well-being are achieved through the ecology of the specific production environment. For example, in the case of crops this is the living soil; for animals it is the farm ecosystem; for fish and marine organisms, the aquatic environment.

Organic farming, pastoral and wild harvest systems should fit the cycles and ecological balances in nature. These cycles are universal but their operation is site-specific. Organic management must be adapted to local conditions, ecology, culture and scale. Inputs should be reduced by reuse, recycling and efficient management of materials and energy in order to maintain and improve environmental quality and conserve resources.

Organic agriculture should attain ecological balance through the design of farming systems, establishment of habitats and maintenance of genetic and agricultural diversity. Those who produce, process, trade, or consume organic products should protect and benefit the common environment including landscapes, climate, habitats, biodiversity, air and water.

Principle of fairness

Organic Agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities.

Fairness is characterized by equity, respect, justice and stewardship of the shared world, both among people and in their relations to other living beings.

This principle emphasizes that those involved in organic agriculture should conduct human relationships in a manner that ensures fairness at all levels and to all parties - farmers, workers, processors, distributors, traders and consumers. Organic agriculture should provide everyone involved with a good quality of life, and contribute to food sovereignty and reduction of poverty. It aims to produce a sufficient supply of good quality food and other products.

This principle insists that animals should be provided with the conditions and opportunities of life that accord with their physiology, natural behavior and well-being.

Natural and environmental resources that are used for production and consumption should be managed in a way that is socially and ecologically just and should be held in trust for future generations. Fairness requires systems of production, distribution and trade that are open and equitable and account for real environmental and social costs.

Principle of care

Organic Agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment.

Organic agriculture is a living and dynamic system that responds to internal and external demands and conditions. Practitioners of organic agriculture can enhance efficiency and increase productivity, but this should not be at the risk of jeopardizing health and well-being. Consequently, new technologies need to be assessed and existing methods reviewed. Given the incomplete understanding of ecosystems and agriculture, care must be taken.

This principle states that precaution and responsibility are the key concerns in management, development and technology choices in organic agriculture. Science is necessary to ensure that organic agriculture is healthy, safe and ecologically sound. However, scientific knowledge alone is not sufficient. Practical experience, accumulated wisdom and traditional and indigenous knowledge offer valid solutions, tested by time. Organic agriculture should prevent significant risks by adopting appropriate technologies and rejecting unpredictable ones, such as genetic engineering. Decisions should reflect the values and needs of all who might be affected, through transparent and participatory processes.

Basic Steps of Organic Farming

Organic farming approach involves following five principles:

• Conversion of land from conventional management to organic management
• Management of the entire surrounding system to ensure biodiversity and sustainability of the system.
• Crop production with the use of alternative sources of nutrients such as crop rotation, residue management, organic manures and biological inputs.
• Management of weeds and pests by better management practices, physical and cultural means and by biological control system
• Maintenance of live stock in tandem with organic concept and make them an integral part of the entire system

Organic Farming Vs Conventional Farming

Organic and conventional agriculture belonged to two different paradigms. The fundamental difference between the two competing agricultural paradigms as follows

Conventional Farming	Organic Farming
Centralization	Decentralization
Dependence	Independence
Competition	Community
Domination of nature	Harmony with nature
Specialisation	Diversity
Exploitation	Restraint

In contrast, several agro-ecologically based researchers stress more the fluid transition between conventional, integrated and organic farming, as an outcome of different assessments of economic, ecological and social goals. Consequently, technique strategies such as integrated pest management of balanced nutrient supply might improve conventional agriculture to such as an extent that it may appear unnecessary to strictly ban pesticides and mineral fertilizers as required by organic standards.

However, there is scientific that organic agriculture differs from conventional agriculture not only gradually but fundamentally. Implementing organic methods consequently seems to provide a new quality in how the agro-ecosystem works. This functioning cannot be explained by summing up single ecological measures. Organic farming seems to improve soil fertility in a way and to an extent which cannot be achieved by conventional farming even if the later consistently respects some ecologically principles.

Organic agriculture is one of several to sustainable agriculture and many of the techniques used (e.g. inter-cropping, rotation of crops, double digging,, mulching, integration of crops and livestock) are practiced under various agricultural systems. What makes organic agriculture unique, as regulated under various laws and certification programmes, is that:

1) almost all synthetic inputs are prohibited and 2) Soil building crop rotations are mandated.

The basic rules of organic production are that natural inputs are approved and synthetic inputs are prohibited, but there are exceptions in both cases.

Certain natural inputs determined by the various certification programmes to be harmful to human health or the environment are prohibited (e.g. arsenic). As well, certain synthetic inputs determined to be essential and consistent with organic farming philosophy, are allowed (e.g. insect pheromones). Lists of specific approved synthetic inputs and prohibited natural inputs are maintained by all the certification programmes and such a list is under negotiation in codex. Many certification programmes require additional environmental protection measures in adoption to these two requirements. While many farmers in the developing world do not use synthetic inputs, this alone is not sufficient to classify their operations as organic.

Modern Farming

Today's chemical farms have little use for the skilled husbandry which was once the guiding principle of working the land. The emphasis today is solely on productivity - high input in exchange for high returns and productivity (mostly diminishing now however for farmers worldwide). Four important considerations - what happens to the land, the food it produces, the people who eat it and the communities which lose out - are overlooked.

Land exhaustion	The constant use of artificial fertilizer, together with a lack of crop rotation, reduces the soil's fertility year by year.
Fertilizers	High yield levels are produced by applying large quantities of artificial fertilizers, instead of by maintaining the natural fertility of the soil.
Nitrate run-off	About half of the nitrate in the artificial fertilizer used on crops is dissolved by rain. The dissolved nitrate runs off the fields to contaminate water courses.
Soil erosion	Where repeated deep ploughing is used to turn over the ground, heavy rains can carry away the topsoil and leave the ground useless for cultivation.
Soil compaction	Damage to the structure of soil by compression is a serious problem in areas that are intensively farmed. Conventional tillage may involve a tractor passing over the land six or seven times, and the wheelings can cover up to 90 per cent of a field. Even a single tractor pass can compress the surface enough to reduce the porosity of the soil by 70 per cent, increasing surface run-off and, therefore, water erosion. In the worst cases, the surface run-off may approach 100 percent - none of the water penetrates the surface
Agricultural fuel	As crop yields grow, so does the amount of fuel needed to produce them. European farmers now use an average of 12 tons of fuel to farm a square kilometre of land; American farmers use about 5 tons (1987 figures).
Biocide sprays	The only controls used against weeds and pests are chemical ones. Most crops receive many doses of different chemicals before they are harvested.
Cruelty to animals	On most "modern" farms, all animals are crowded together indoors. Complex systems of machinery are needed to feed them, while constant medication is needed to prevent disease. The cruelty involved in managing, breeding, growing and slaughtering farm animals today is unimaginably repulsive and horrifying.
Animal slurry	With so many animals packed together in indoor pens, their manure accumulates at great speed. It is often poured into lagoons which leak into local watercourses, contaminating them with disease-causing organisms and contributing to algae-blooms.
Imported animal feed	Many farms are not self-sufficient in animal feed; instead they rely on feed brought into the farm. This often comes from countries which can ill afford to part with it.
Stubble burning	In countries where stubble is burned, large amounts of potentially useful organic matter disappear into the sky in clouds of polluting smoke
Loss of cultivated biodiversity	Large and other chemical farms tend to be monocultures growing the same crop and crop variety
Threat to indigenous seeds and animal breeds and species	Native cultivars and animal breeds lose out to exotic species and hybrids. Many native animal breeds are today threatened with extinction. The same holds true for many indigenous plant varieties which have disappeared within the space of one generation.
Habitat destruction	Agribusiness farming demands that anything which stands in the way of crop production is uprooted and destroyed. The wild animals and plants which were once a common sight around farms are deprived of their natural habitat and die out.
Contaminated food	Food, both plant and animal products, leaves the farm contaminated with the chemicals that were used to produce it.
Destruction of traditional knowledge systems and traditions	Rural indigenous knowledge and traditions, both agricultural and non-agricultural, is invariably connected to agriculture and agricultural systems.
Control of agriculture inputs and food distribution channel	The supply and trading in agricultural inputs and produce is in the hands of a few large corporations. This threatens food security, reducing the leverage and importance of the first and the last part of the supply chain - the farmer and the consumer.
Threat to individual farmers	Chemical agriculture is a threat to their livelihoods and changes their lifestyles, unfortunately not for the better.