Mushroom as a product and their role in mycoremediation

Shweta Kulshreshtha, corresponding author

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Introduction

Biological approaches based on industrial and environmental biotechnology is focusing on the development of “clean technologies" which emphasizes on the maximum production, reduced waste generation, treatment and conversion of waste in some useful form. Further, these clean technologies focus on the use of biological methods for the remediation of waste. One such biological method is mycoremediation which is based on the use of fungi and mushroom for the removal of waste from the environment. The mushrooms and other fungi possess enzymatic machinery for the degradation of waste/pollutants and therefore, can be applied for a wide variety of pollutants (Purnomo et al. [2013]; Kulshreshtha et al. [2013]). However, mushrooms, a basidiomycetous fungus, are becoming more popular nowadays for remediation purposes because it is not only a bioremediation tool but also provide mycelium or fruiting bodies as a source of protein. The efficiency of mushroom species in producing food protein in the form of biomass or fruiting bodies from different wastes lies in their ability to degrade waste via secretion of a variety of hydrolyzing and oxidizing enzymes (Kuforiji and Fasidi []; Zhu et al. [2013]). This has attracted research attention in the field of mushroom cultivation and waste remediation.

Many reports have published to emphasize the role of mushroom in bioremediation of wastes by the process of biodegradation, biosorption and bioconversion (Akinyele et al. [2012], Kulshreshtha et al. [2013a]; Kumhomkul and Panich-pat []; Lamrood and Ralegankar [2013]). Many scientists have studied the role of different enzymes in the degradation process; degradation products formed by it and conditions affecting the degradation process (Novotný et al. [2004]; Akinyele et al. [2011]; Zhu et al. [2013]). However, safety aspects of the process and products have not been reported so far. There is scarcity of reports indicating the pros and cons of mushroom cultivation on wastes and their further utilization as food. Moreover, mushroom as a product is meagerly reported.

Keeping this in mind, in this review we are discussing the use of mushroom as a biological tool for cleanup the environment. Mushroom is not only a mycoremediation tool but also a product. Mushroom fruiting bodies generated on industrial and agro-industrial wastes are considered as a product. We have also focused on the safety aspects of mushroom cultivation on waste.

Mushroom as a product

Mushrooms are the product of biological origin and can be developed from biological wastes, agricultural wastes, agro-industrial wastes and industrial wastes. Besides this, these mushrooms can be used as a source of proteins, amino acids and several biological active molecules which not only provide nutrition but also use for therapeutic purposes (Table 1). Therefore, these can be considered as an important product.

Table 1

Role of mushroom as an important product

S. no.	Mushroom	As a product	References
1	Pleurotus, Agaricus, Ganoderma Schizophyllan commune, Grifola frondosa Coriolus versicolor, Ganoderma lucidum,	Used as medicine to boost immune responses against cancer	Kodama et al. ([2002]); Gao et al. ([2003]); Maehara et al. ([2012])
2	Pleurotus, Agaricus,	Possess antimutagenic or antigenotoxic power to fight against cancer	Gameiro et al. ([2013]); Kang et al. ([2012])
3	Ganoderma lucidum, Phellinus rimosus, Pleurotus florida and Pleurotus pulmonaris	Used as antioxidant and antitumor agent	Ajith and Janardhanan ([2007])
4	Pleurotus, Agaricus	Used as food

Edible mushrooms are highly nutritious and can be compared with eggs, milk and meat (Oei [2003]). Mushroom is a protein rich food and has been considered as the source of single cell protein. These are easily digestible and possess a high amount of amino acids but lacks cholesterol. These possess high quantities of fibers, few sugars and low calories and a high quantity of the amino acids phenylalanine, threonine and tyrosine.

As far as the nutrient profile of mushroom are concerned, these are influenced by many factors including the type of substrate on which these are cultivated. There are some differences in the nutrient content of the mushroom cultivated on different substrates (Mabrouk and Ahwanyi [2008]; Akinyele et al. [2011]; Kulshreshtha et al. [2013b]). However, this change in nutritional content never found to affect their edibility. Therefore, it is still a beneficial technology because it solves two major problems simultaneously i.e. waste accumulation and shortage of proteinaceous food.

Besides, use for edible purpose, mushroom is used for other industrial processes like biopulping and biobleaching. Hence, the importance of this as product cannot be ignored.

Mushroom as mycoremediation tool

Remediation through fungi is also called as mycoremediation. Mycoremediation tool refers to mushrooms and their enzymes due to having ability to degrade a wide variety of environmentally persistent pollutants, transform industrial and agro-industrial wastes into products.

Mycoremediation potential of mushroom

Mushroom uses different methods to decontaminate polluted spots and stimulate the environment. These methods include - (i) Biodegradation (ii) Biosorption (iii) Bioconversion.

Biodegradation

The term ‘Biodegradation’ is used to describe the ultimate degradation and recycling of complex molecule to its mineral constituents. It is the process which leads to complete mineralization of the starting compound to simpler ones like CO2, H2O, NO3 and other inorganic compounds by living organisms. A lot of research has been done on the degradation abilities of mushroom and their enzymes and is depicted in Table 2. Many reports have been published on the compounds produced by degradation of various wastes and factor affecting the processes.

Table 2

Role of mushroom in degradation of pollutants

S. no.	Mushroom spp.	Waste/Pollutants	Remarks	References
1	Pleurotus ostreatus	Oxo-Biodegradable plastic	Mushrooms degraded the plastic and grew on it.	da Luz et al. ([2013])
2	Lentinula edodes	2,4-dichlorophenol	Mushrooms degraded 2,4-dichlorophenol (DCP) by using vanillin as an activator	Tsujiyama et al. ([2013])
3	Pleurotus pulmonarius	Radioactive cellulosic-based waste	Waste containing mushroom mycellium was solidified with portland cement and then this solidified waste act as first barrier against the release of radiocontaminants	Eskander et al. ([2012])
4	Jelly sp., Schizophyllum commune and Polyporoussp.	malachite green	99.75% (Jelly sp.), 97.5% (Schizophyllum commune), 68.5% (Polyporous sp.2) dye was degraded in 10 days	Rajput et al. ([2011])
5	Pleurotus pulmonarius	crude oil	crude oil was degraded	Olusola and Anslem ([2010])
6	Coriolus versicolorMKACC 52492	PAH	Mushroom possesses ability to degrade Poly-R 478 which decides its suitability to degrade PAH. Lignin-modifying enzymes laccase, manganese-dependent peroxidase (MnP), and lignin peroxidase (LiP)was found to produce for degradation	Jang et al. ([2009])

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Mushroom can produce extracellular peroxidases, ligninase (lignin peroxidase, manganese dependent peroxidase and laccase), cellulases, pectinases, xylanases and oxidases (Nyanhongo et al. [2007]). These are able to oxidize recalcitrant pollutants in vitro. These enzymes are typically induced by their substrates.

These enzymes have also been found to degrade nonpolymeric, recalcitrant pollutants such as nitrotoluenes (VanAcken et al. [1999]), PAHs (Hammel et al. []; Johannes et al. []), organic and synthetic dyes (Ollikka et al. []; Heinfling et al. []), and pentachlorophenol (Lin et al. []) under in vitro conditions. Recently, it is reported that mushroom species are able to degrade polymers such as plastics (da Luz et al. []).

The biodegradation mechanism is very complex. The reason is the influence of other biochemical systems and interactions of ligninolytic enzymes with cytochrome P450 monooxygenase system, hydroxyl radicals and the level of H2O2 which are produced by the mushroom.

Biosorption

The second important process of removal of metals/pollutants from the environment by mushroom is - biosorption. Biosorption is considered as an alternative to the remediation of industrial effluents as well as the recovery of metals present in effluent. Biosorption is a process based on the sorption of metallic ions/pollutants/xenobiotics from effluent by live or dried biomass which often exhibits a marked tolerance towards metals and other adverse conditions (Gavrilescu [2004]). Biosorbents can be prepared from mushroom mycelium and spent mushroom compost.

The uptake of pollutants/xenobiotics by mushrooms involves a combination of two processes: (i) bioaccumulation i.e. active metabolism-dependent processes, which includes both transport into the cell and partitioning into intracellular components; and (ii) biosorption i.e. the binding of pollutants to the biomass without requiring metabolic energy. Several chemical processes may be involved in biosorption, including adsorption, ion exchange processes and covalent binding. According to Mar'in et al. ([1997]), the polar groups of proteins, amino acids, lipids and structural polysaccharides (chitin, chitosan, glucans) may be involved in the process of biosorption.

A lot of study has been done on the biosorptive capacity of biomass of mushroom and are shown in Table 3. It is reported that the biosorption capacity of dead biomass may be greater, similar to or less than that of living cells (Mar'in et al. [1997]). In the case of biosorption, dead biomass of mushroom offers certain advantages over living cells. Dead mushroom biomass can be obtained from industries as a waste of fermentation processes. Further, this is not sensitive to concentrations of toxicants and their toxicity effects and adverse operating conditions (pH, temperature, nutrient supply, initial metal ion concentration, and the concentration of cells etc.) unlike living mushroom biomass. The uptake of xenobiotic by living cells depends on fungal species and contact time. Biosorption techniques are now becoming very popular for the removal of pollutants. Biosorption is an effective method due to the high uptake capacity and very cost-effective source of the raw material.

Table 3

Removal of pollutants by biomass of mushroom using biosorption process

S. no	Mushroom spp.	Pollutants	Remarks	References
1	Agaricus bisporus, Lactarius piperatus	Cadmium (II) ions	Wild L. piperatus showed higher removal efficiency on Cd(II) ions compared to the cultivated A. bisporus	Nagy et al. ([2013])
2	Fomes fasciatus	Copper (II)	Mushroom is efficient in biosorption of Cu (II) ions and hot-alkali treatment increased their affinity for Cu (II) ions	Sutherland and Venkobachar ([2013])
3	Pleurotus platypus, Agaricus bisporus, Calocybe indica	Copper, Zinc, Iron, Cadmium, Lead, Nickle	Mushrooms are efficient biosorbent for the removal these ions from aqueous solution	Lamrood and Ralegankar ([2013])
4	Flammulina velutipes	Copper	Mushroom compost used as biosorbent for removing copper ions from aqueous solution	Luo et al. ([2013])
5	Pleurotus tuber- regium	Heavy metals	Pleurotus tuber-regium biosorb the pollutant heavy metals from the soil artificially contaminated with some heavy metals	Oyetayo et al.([2012])
6	Pleurotus ostreatus	Cadmium	Mushroom possess biosorption capacity and mechanism of biosorption was observed	Tay et al.([2011])
7	Pleurotus sajor-caju	heavy metal Zn	Mushrooms biosorb the heavy metals	Jibran and Milsee Mol ([2011])

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Bioconversion

Nowadays, the research on conversion of industrial or agro-industrial sludges into some other useful forms is going on. The most important bioconversion product is - mushroom. Any lignocellulosic waste, generated by industries, can be used for cultivation of mushroom which can be further use as a product. Mushroom species cultivated on industrial and agro-industrial wastes are given in Table 4. The choice of the substrate for the cultivation of mushroom is generally determined by the regional availability of the material.

Table 4

Bioconversion of waste by mushroom species

S. no.	Mushroom spp.	Bioconversion of waste	Remarks	References
1	Pleurotus citrinopileatus	Handmade paper and cardboard industrial waste	Successfully cultivated. Basidiocarps possessed good nutrient content and no genotoxicity	Kulshreshtha et al. [(2013)]
2	Pleurotus ostreatus	Extract from the sawdust	Biomass of mushroom was produced in submerged liquid culture were analyzed	Akinyele et al. ([2012])
3	Volvariella volvacea	Agro-industrial residues such as cassava, sugar beet pulp, wheat bran and apple pomase	Enzyme activities were measured during the fermentation of substrates	Akinyele et al. ([2011])
4	Pleurotus florida	Handmade paper and cardboard industrial waste	Successfully cultivated. Basidiocarps possessed normal morphology and no genotoxicity	Kulshreshtha et al.([2010])
5	Pleurotus	Cotton waste, rice straw, cocoyam peels and sawdusts of Mansonia altissima, Boscia angustifolia and Khaya ivorensis	Successfully cultivated with good crude protein, crude fat and carbohydrate contents in sporophores.	Kuforiji and Fasidi ([2009])
6	Pleurotus eous and Lentinus connotus	Paddy straw, sorghum stalk, and banana pseudostem	Waste successfully bioconverted by mushroom with good biological efficiency	Rani et al.([2008])
7	Pleurotus tuber-regium	Nigerian trees; Terminalia superba, Mansonia altissima, Holoptelia grandis and Miliciaexcelsa	Grow on trees	Jonathan et al. ([2008])
8	Pleurotus tuber-regium	Cotton waste, sawdust of Khaya ivorensis and rice straw	Sclerotia propagated on groundnut shells and cocoyam peels with lipase and phenoloxidase; cellulase, carboxymethyl cellulase enzymatic activities	Kuforiji and Fasidi ([2008])
9	Lentinula edodes	Eucalyptus waste	Successfully convert this waste and qualitative and quantitative changes were also measured	Brienzo et al. ([2007])
10	Lentinula edodes	Vineyard pruning (VP), barley straw (BS), and wheat straw	Bioconversion of VP waste with shortest primordium formation, highest biological efficiency, highest yield and shortest production cycle (6 days)	Gaitán- Hernández et al. ([2006])
11	Lentinula tigrinus	Wheat straw	Characterize the production of lignocellulosic enzymes and bioconvert the wheat straw	Lechner and Papinutti ([2006])
12	V. volvacea	Banana leaves (Musa sapientum lina)	Efficient bioconversion with good yield	Belewu and Belewu ([2005])

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Mushroom cultivation has also been successfully done on various industrial wastes (Singhal et al. []; Kulshreshtha et al. []; Dulay et al. [2012] and Kulshreshtha et al. [2013b]). Applications of mushroom as mycoremediation tool in the bioconversion of these industrial wastes into protein rich mushroom carpophores (fruiting bodies of mushroom), on one hand provides mushroom and on the other hand helps in solving pollution problems, which their disposal may otherwise cause.

Feasibility of the mycoremediation tool and processes

It is extremely important to carry out feasibility study before starting a remediation project in order to determine the best conditions for the process and toxicity in the fruiting bodies. The most important parameters to define a contaminated site are: biodegradability, contaminant distribution, chemical reactivity of the contaminants, soil type and properties, oxygen availability and occurrence of inhibitory substances (Martín et al. []). The success of mycoremediation is governed by three important factors- availability of mushroom, accessibility of contaminants and a conductive environment. Therefore, the knowledge on the physiology and ecology of the biological species or consortia involved and the characteristics of the polluted sites are decisive factors to select an adequate mycoremediation protocol (Martín et al. []).

Mycoremediation of waste from the environment by mushroom has many advantages but at the same time it is a challenge for the researchers and engineers. Mycoremediation of wastes can be done in in situ and ex situ conditions. When it is carried out on site, it eliminates the need to transport the toxic materials to treatment sites. It is an environmentally friendly approach and needs only a small space, low cost, less skilled persons and can be applied easily in the field. In contrast to above, there are some disadvantages in applying this mycoremediation tool. Mushrooms require time to adapt to the environment and cleanup wastes. Mushroom cultivated on industrial wastes may possess toxicity/genotoxicity. Genotoxicity of mushrooms is influenced by genotoxicants that are present in waste used for their cultivation. Therefore, it is necessary to assess toxicity/genotoxicity of mushrooms if used for bioremediation purpose.

Toxicity level in the fruiting bodies is based on two facts, i.e. biodegradation and biosorption. Mushroom possesses the suitable enzymatic machinery for biodegradation which lead to the degradation of pollutants from the substrate and convert it into less toxic products. This renders the fruiting bodies safe for consumption. Recently, many papers have published which reported that mushroom not only able to degrade pollutants but also able to reduce the toxicity or mutagenicity (Kulshreshtha et al. [2013b]; Choi et al. []; Malachová et al. []). Numerous studies stated that mutagenicity reduction by mushrooms is primarily species dependent. Kulshreshtha et al. ([2011]) and Kulshreshtha et al. ([2013b]) reported Pleurotus florida was not found to have genotoxicity, however, Pleurotus citrinopileatus have had genotoxicity in their fruiting bodies when both were cultivated on industrial wastes and the mixture of wheat straw and industrial wastes under the same cultivation conditions.

Toxicity reduction is also dependent on the substrate. Same fungi may have different capability in degrading the different pollutants (Choi et al. []) due to the enzymes of mushrooms that are not only involved in degradation but also reducing the effects of toxic and genotoxic pollutants. Several researchers have proved the antimutagenic and antigenotoxic power of mushroom (Mendez-Espinoza et al. []; Taira et al. []; Mlinaric et al. []; Filipic et al. []; Menoli et al. []) which may be used to reduce the genotoxicity of the pollutants. Therefore, it is proved that besides having degradation power mushrooms can reduce the genotoxicants and toxic pollutants due to having antimutagenic and antigenotoxic power. These types of species of mushroom can be used for edible purposes and as feed for animals. This concept provides a natural guide to future research which should be focused on the need of research to degrade the pollutants in such a way that their disposal will not create another problem and fruiting bodies can be consumed safely. In contrast to this, absorption of pollutants by mushroom makes them unsuitable for consumption. Many researchers have reported the very high amount of metal content and mutagenicity in the fruiting bodies of mushrooms growing on polluted substrate, naturally or artificially, which is due to the absorption process (Tables 3and and5).5). Wild Further information is needed about the level of toxicity in these mushrooms, ignorance of which will cause the associated health related problems.

Table 5

Mutagenicity of naturally occurring and cultivated mushroom species detected by Ames test

S. no.	Mushroom types	Mutagenicity test results	Reference
1	Nine wild and two cultivated species of Spanish edible mushrooms	The mushrooms were mutagenic to TA100 and TA98 strains	Morales et al., ([1990])
2	Wild and commercially grown mushrooms	Presence of microsomal enzymes (S-9) reduced the mutagenic effects of all the mushrooms, with the exception of Agaricus abruptibulbus and Cantharellus cibarius.	Gruter et al., ([1991])
3	Agaricus bisporus	Direct-acting mutagenic response in various Salmonella typhimurium strains, TA104. Agaritine is not responsible for the mutagenicity of mushroom extracts	Papaparaskeva et al., ([1991])
4	Agaricus bisporus	Agaritine was weakly mutagenic, in the absence of an activation system, in Salmonella typhimurium strain TA104.	Walton et al., ([1997])
5	Pleurotus florida cultivated on handmade paper and cardboard industrial waste	Not mutagenic with either TA 98 or TA 100 strain	Kulshreshtha et al., ([2011])
6	Pleurotus citrinopileatuscultivated on handmade paper and cardboard industrial waste	Mushroom extract is mutagenic with TA 98 strain	Kulshreshtha et al., [(2013)]

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Biosorption can become a good tool to remediate toxic metals threatening the environment (Lamrood and Ralegankar [2013]) but on the other hand, this process generates non-consumable biomass which gives rise to the new problem of disposing it. Usually researchers have been focused on the use of mushroom mycelium for biosorption and compare the abilities of biomass for sorption (Table 3). A very few publications reported the reason of varying power of biosorption to various types of mushroom (Kumhomkul and Panich-pat []; Das [2005]). This fact may be a decisive factor for further use of mushroom species.

It is proved that mushrooms have different abilities of biosorption, bioremediation, biodegradation and toxicity reduction. In my opinion, researchers should try to first remediate the heavy metals by cultivating high metal absorbing species of mushroom. However, low absorbing edible species can be used to cultivate on waste so that absorption of the pollutants can be minimized. Researchers should also try to develop the method of using biomass repeatedly for the biosorption of pollutants which will also reduce the waste generation. The toxicity or genotoxicity of these mushroom species should be assessed and thereafter, non-toxic mushroom species can be used for consumption. However, in the case of remediation of pollutants preference should be given to those species which can degrade the pollutants. The safe species will be selected to remediate a particular type of waste and further use for consumption.

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Conclusion

Mushroom is a tremendous boon to the idea of using this for mycoremediation process as a real-world solution. The cultivation of edible mushroom on agricultural and industrial wastes may thus be a value added process capable of converting these discharges, which are otherwise considered to be wastes, into foods and feeds. Besides producing nutritious mushroom, it reduces genotoxicity and toxicity of mushroom species. Mycoremediation through mushroom cultivation will alleviate two of the world’s major problems i.e. waste accumulation and production of proteinaceous food simultaneously. Thus, there is a need for further research towards the exploitation of potential of mushroom as bioremediation tool and its safety aspects for consumption as product.

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Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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Acknowledgement

We are thankful to Rajasthan Department of Science and Technology (DST), Jaipur for providing financial support for conducting work (Sanction No. 2005/3951-67). We are also thankful to University Grants commission (UGC) for their support and grant (F. No. 40-113/2011, SR). We are also thankful to DST (Delhi), and Center for International Co-operation in Science (CICS), Chennai for providing travel grant to present my research in an International conference “Bioproduct-2012”.

The accelerated industrial and green revolution aimed at increasing industrial and agricultural productivity has led to the entry of several synthetic organic compounds into the natural ecosystems. When the concentration of these chemicals, their metabolites, or by-products goes beyond permitted limits, remediation becomes necessary to avoid migration of these compounds to more sensitive areas. In the search for cleaner technologies, mushrooms are potent biological organisms which are grown on agrowastes. Mushrooms have the ability to breakdown lignin and cellulose and structurally similar organic pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins, pesticides, explosives, dyes, and solvents. Mechanisms such as extracellular oxidation, catabolism by enzymes, reduction, hydrolysis, and conversion into metabolites give an insight into the mycoremediation process. Spent mushroom compost was also reported to have bioremediation properties for various harmful and toxic chemicals. The various enzymes such as laccase, catalase, peroxidase, etc. are suitable for this specific mechanism of degradation.

What Are Mushrooms?

The types of fungi that produce mushrooms are a subset of the Fungal Kingdom, a large grouping of organisms that share similar traits. The Fungal Kingdom not only includes the species that produce the 3-dimensional objects that we can touch and easily interact with (i.e. mushrooms), but also other microorganisms such as yeasts and molds. The Kingdom Fungi is differentiated from plants, animals, protists and bacteria by the facts that fungi are comprised of cells that 1) are eukaryotic, 2) have cell walls that contain chitin, 3) must get their food externally, and 4) expel carbon dioxide through respiration.

On the taxonomic tree of life, fungi are closer related to the animal kingdom than the plant kingdom. This makes sense from a biological and physiological standpoint when one learns the details of how fungi grow and survive. But on a more subjective level, fungi almost seem like animals themselves. Fungi are acutely aware of their environments and rapidly adapt to changes in it. When cultivating fungi, one gets the sense that they are caring for a pet or small child considering the care and attention required to keep the fungus alive. And when studying the dynamics and complexity of fungal symbiosis and metabolite production, one almost gets a sense of an innate intelligence or sentience in the fungus that is not easily explained by simple chemistry and biology alone.

The fungal kingdom is broken down into several sub-groups, or phylum, based on differences in spore production strategy. The main phyla in the fungal kingdom include:

Chytridiomycota – Aquatic fungi that number approximately 700 species, in 105 genera.
Glomeromycota – Obligate, generalist mycorrhizal fungi that number approximate 160 species, all of which form mutualistic symbiotic relationships with 80-90% of all plants on the earth.
Zygomycota – A diverse group that includes some common fermenting fungi and molds and numbers approximately 1,000 species.
Ascomycota – Fungi that develop spores in balloon-like sacs and number approximately 64,000 species. This group includes beneficial molds, such as Penicillium species, as well edible mushrooms, such as the Morels.
Basidiomycota – Fungi that develop spores on club-like structures and number approximately 31,515 species in 1,589 genera. This group includes most of the familiar wild-harvested and commercially cultivated fungi.

While all these fungi play interesting and important roles in nature, it is the last two groups that produce the delicious, medicinal, and remediative mushrooms many people are familiar with. However, what we commonly called “mushrooms” are just a small piece of a much larger body of tissue that produces them. This larger body is a densely woven network known as mycelium. As explained in our page on The Mushroom Lifecycle, this mycelial mass is formed when two spores released by parent mushrooms grow together and branch through their environment in search of food and water. Much like the apple on a tree, the mushroom is the reproductive strategy of the fungus, while the mycelium (like the tree) is the vegetative stage of the mushroom lifecycle.

The Mushroom Lifecycle

The fungal kingdom is divided into several sub groups, or phyla, each with its own unique lifecycle and characteristics. One of these groups, known as the basidiomycetes, includes all of the species one is likely to try cultivating (e.g. Oysters, Shiitake, Reishi). It is recommended that you come to understand the saprophytic (decomposing) basidiomycete lifecycle before beginning your hand at cultivation or remediation. This will certainly help you to not only understand what aspects of nature you are trying to mimic throughout your cultivation trials but will also (hopefully) result in greater successes and lower rates of contamination from competitor molds and bacteria that are trying to eat the mushroom’s food you are providing.

We begin with the spore. Spores prolifically develop on a microscopic layer of fertile (spore-producing) tissue known as the hymenium, This tissue develops in mature mushrooms on the surface of structures called gills, teeth, or pores, which themselves are often found underneath the cap of a mushroom. A given mature mushroom can produces millions, or even billions, of spores in a single day, all of which are ejected from the mushroom at an incredibly high force to enter their surrounding environment. When a given spore lands in a suitable habitat, it quickly germinates, producing a single-cell filament, or hypha (plural hyphae), which begins to grow through its substrate, or food source, in search of a genetic mate. Like the sperm and egg of animals, spores contain only half the genetic information of their parent and thus need to join with the hypha of another spore in order to be genetically whole.

Once the spore does encounter a mate, the two hyphae fuse into a joined network, which is then referred to as mycelium. This mycelium now has all the genetic information it needs to successfully grow through its environment and ultimately produce mushrooms. As the mycelium grows through its substrate, this thread-like structure continuously branches in all directions, forming an incredibly dense network (imagine a web with clearances smaller than any woven structure humans can produce) in the search for water and food. In the case of the decomposing fungi, as the mycelial tips encounter organic matter they exude a mixture of complex enzymes upon this material in order to convert this complex matter into forms the fungus can use as food. The main energy source for these fungi is the long chain-like molecule of cellulose (the fibrous stuff that makes up the walls of plant cells). Saprotrophs have developed an array of enzymes that can readily snip this long chain in to simpler, shorter carbohydrates that the fungus can then absorb and metabolize. Some saprophytes have even adapted to break down lignin, the highly complex compound that makes wood hard and rigid, something few things on Earth are able to accomplish. As the fungus is producing these degrading enzymes it is also releasing various metabolites to protect itself from surrounding competitors in the environment. Being only one cell thick, the mycelium has no outer barrier to infection and thus has evolved to defend itself from harmful bacteria and fungi in its substrate through the use of its own anti-biotic and anti-fungal compounds. These are some of the compounds that fungi produce that are medicinally beneficial to humans, as our bodies use them in a similar manner.

If the fungus runs out of resources or a change in environmental conditions arise (e.g. a temperature drop & increase in humidity), the mycelium will be triggered to produce a mushroom (that is, to “fruit”) and will start to accumulate in to numerous tiny pinheads, or primordia. These primordia will soon develop into a mature fruiting bodies (what we commonly refer to as the mushroom) after a few days, at which point they will begin to drop millions of spores and continue the lifecycle anew.

Mushroom Cultivation 101

While teaching the skills of simple, cheap, and easy cultivation and application of the decomposing, mushroom producing fungi is at at the core of the Radical Mycology project, we wish to note up front that the many of the same skills and concepts used to grow mushrooms can also be used to grow the mycorrhizal and fermenting fungi that are used to improve soil health and maintain traditional food ways.

A Brief History of Mushroom Cultivation

Fungal cultivation was arguably the first intentional human production. This is thought to have taken the form of mead (honey wine) production long ago when early humans discovered that by placing a bee hive in a small body of water that they could come back a few days or weeks later to find the water transformed into an intoxicating drink. Some of the first known examples of intentional mushroom cultivation, however, are found in 3rd century Japan where Shiitake mushrooms were grown on oak logs. This early practice consisted of placing logs that were fruiting mushrooms next to fresh logs. The “magic” (actually the spores) of the fruiting mushroom were invisibly transferred to the fresh logs and the following year or two Shiitakes would pop out of the new logs!

In the 1700s in France, Agaricus (Button) mushrooms were unintentionally first cultivated in the constant temperature and humidity environments of abandoned limestone caves. Horse bedding left in the caves started producing mushrooms and the practiced soon developed to add more manure over time in a trail-and-error approach to discovering the unknown world of mushroom development. Since that time, this practice has become highly refined to the point that Agaricus bisporus (Button mushroom) cultivation accounts for the majority of global mushroom farming.

In the 1920s, aseptic (aka “sterile”) laboratory techniques were developed that enabled controlled cultivation of mushrooms for the first time. For decades research mostly focused on increasing the profitability of Button mushroom production and was focused on intensely sterile work.

In the 1960s, the psychoactive mushroom Psilocybe cubensis began being illegally cultivated by home cultivators on a budget. Unable to afford or build highly aseptic environments, these growers worked out many lower-tech and lower-cost processes that brought the world of mushroom cultivation to a home-scale. The innovations and techniques developed during this period also began to be applied to non-psychoactive mushrooms with great success, thus expanding the number of species that were commonly cultivated. This community of cultivators have anonymously pushed the world of low-budget cultivation forward for decades and, in the recent years of the Internet, this expansion of knowledge is only continuing to increase.

Some Reasons to Grow Mushrooms

There are numerous reasons to learn to cultivate mushrooms and other fungi, as this site attempts to demonstrate. However, some of the most apparent reasons include:

Mushrooms are a relatively cheap, year-round source of delicious, healthy whole food and potent natural medicine that can be grown on various urban and agricultural waste products.
Mushroom cultivation provides many applications for developing local jobs & revenue as well as community food security.
Ability to grow local mushrooms along with species not commercially available.
Versatile uses in the garden on the land for soil building, nutrient availability, and water retention.
Ability to remediate soil and water and rehabilitate damaged environments.
It’s sciencey & fun!

We Grow Decomposing Fungi

The fungal kingdom is vast, with 1.5 million estimated species and only 5% formally described. While the “imperfect” fungi (e.g. molds and yeasts) are cultivated for foods such as miso, tempeh, beer, and bread, in this intro we focus on the larger, fleshier fungi: the mushrooms.

The fungal kingdom is divided into many sub-groups based on variations in lifecycle and ecological niche. Here, we focus on the saprotrophic basidiomycetes, a group of fungi that includes the mushrooms most commonly worked with for food, medicine, and remediation (e.g. Oysters, Turkey Tails, and Shiitake). Saprotropic means that the mushroom is a decomposer. Basidiomycete refers to the specific way that the spores develop in the mushroom. It is recommended that you come to understand the saprotrophic basidiomycete lifecycle before beginning your hand at cultivation or remediation so as to best understand what aspects of nature you are trying to mimic throughout your cultivation trials.

Saprophytic Fungi are the decomposing fungi, breaking down the organic matter of the world. These mushrooms are the easiest to cultivate as they (generally) only require nutrients and organic matter to survive. They are much easier to cultivate indoors than the fungi with more complex ecological roles, such as mycorrhizal fungi. Much like feeding an animal, the saprophytes require the basic needs of life (air, water, food, warmth) and not much else in order to grow.

Commonly cultivated species include:

Agaricus blazei | A. subrufescens (Himematsutake | King Agaricus | Almond Portobello)
Agaricus bisporus (Portobello | Button | Crimini)
Agrocybe aegerita (Black Poplar | Pioppino)
Chlorophyllum rachodes (Shaggy parasol)
Coprinus comatus (Shaggy Mane | Lawyer’s Wig)
Flammulina velutipes (Enokitake | Nametake)
Fomes fomentarius (Tinder Conk | Hoof Fungus | Ice Man Polypore | Amadou)
Ganoderma applanatum (Artist’s Conk | Kofukitake)
Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi (Divine/Spiritual Mushroom in Japanese) | Ling Chi/Zhi (Tree of Life Mushroom in Chinese) | Mannentake (10,000-year mushroom in Japanese) | Panacea Polypore)
Grifola frondosa (Maitake (Dancing Mushroom) | Kumotake (Cloud Mushroom) | Hen-of -the-Woods)
Hericium abietis (Comb Tooth)
Hericium erinaceus (Lion’s Mane | Monkey’s Head | Sheep’s Head | Bear’s Head | Old Man’s Beard | Satyr’s beard | Pom Pom)
Hypholoma capnoides (Brown-Gilled Clustered Woodlover)
Hypsizygus tessulatus (Beech Mushroom | Bunashimeji)
Hypsizygus ulmarius (Elm Oyster | Shirotamogitake)
Inonotus obliquus (Chaga)
Laetiporu sulphureus (Chicken-of-the-Woods | Sulfur Shelf)
Lepista nuda (Blewit)
Lentinula edodes (Shiitake | Donka | Pasania)
Macrolepiota procera (Parasol Mushroom)
Morel angusticeps (Black Morel)
Pholiota nameko (Nameko | Slime Pholiota)
Piptoporus betulinus (Birch polypore | Kanbatake)
Pleurotus citrinopileatus (Golden Oyster | Tamogitake)
Pleurotus cystidiosus (Abalone | Maple Oyster)
Pleurotus djamor (Pink Oyster | Salmon Oyster)
Pleurotus eryngii (King Oyster)
Pleurotus eusomus (Tarragon Oyster)
Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster | Hiratake)
Pleurotus pulmonarius (Pheonix Oyster | Indian Oyster)
Pleurotus tuberregium (King Tuber | Tiger Milk)
Polyporus umbellatus (Zhu Ling | Umbrella Polypore)
Sparassis crispa (Cauliflower Mushroom)
Stropharia ruggosoannulata (King Stropharia | Garden Giant | Burgandy/Wine Cap |Godzilla Mushroom)
Trametes versicolor (Turkey Tail | Yun Zhi | Kawaratake | Cloud Mushroom)
Volvariella volvacea (Paddy Straw | Fukurotake)

Some of these species (such as the Oyster species and King Stropharia) are incredibly easy to grow and are recommended for the beginner.

An Overview of the Cultivation Process

The process of cultivating fungi revolves, in essence, around expanding a stock of mycelium (the network of tissue that comprises the fungal body) to the point that there is enough mycelial mass for it to transform into a substantial yield of fruiting bodies (aka mushrooms). Just like a plant needs a substantial root stock for a significant yield, so too do mushrooms need a large mycelial stock to produce a large flush of mushrooms.

Using moist, sugar-rich substrates (food sources) for the fungus, the cultivator must work in a quick and clean manner to ward off ambient bacteria and fungi that will readily consume the provided substrate. Classically, this work is done in several incremental stages in a very clean space. Once enough contaminant-free mycelium has been grown out, the fungus is placed into a humid environment, the temperature is dropped, and light is introduced along with an increase in fresh air in order to signal the fungus into transforming its mycelium into fleshy mushrooms. These four environmental changes work to mimic the changes that naturally take place in the fall, when most mushroom fruit.

The key stages to this practice in the sterile methodology are as follows:

Spores or a small amount of source mycelium (taken from a fresh mushroom or acquired commercially) is introduced to either a petri dish filled with nutrient-rich agar or a sugar-rich liquid broth. The mycelium will then grow over/through this medium.
7-21 days later, once this mycelium has grown out, a small amount of it is transferred from the agar or liquid broth to a container filled with cooked and sterilized grains.
10-21 days later these grains will be colonized and are then introduced to a final wood, manure, or compost-based substrate upon which the mushrooms will fruit.
This final substrate then colonizes over a matter of weeks or months and is then introduced to the correct environment to encourage mushroom development.

While this process is still the standard approach for commercial mushroom growers, in recent years a new understanding of how to cultivate mushrooms has come to light that is less aseptic and more natural in approach. Recognizing the natural ability of the fungi to digest not only a range of foods but also to defend itself from competitors, we at Radical Mycology choose to focus our techniques on approaches that are less reliant on sterile procedures and more respectful and cognizant of the mushroom’s innate abilities to defend itself.

These methods include:

Fermenting substrates instead of using heat sources to pasteurize them.
Training species to have a strong immune system capable of out-competing molds and bacteria.
Growing mushrooms on kitchen scraps and other waste products.
Growing mushrooms in outdoor installations that are maintained by the seasons.
Implementing tools and techniques that enable aseptic work to be done in a relatively dirty environment.

And that is just scratching the surface! There are as many ways to cultivate as their are cultivators so do not get discouraged by the amount of information and the variety of opinions on how to cultivate that exists on the internet. Use the links below as starting point and come to find an approach that works for you.

Simple Outdoor Cultivation

Here are some great protocols our buddy Mushroom Jordan from Portland, OR wrote up for us.

The King Stropharia mother patch

Find an area that has dappled light-half-sun/half-shade. Areas that have plants of various heights-grasses, shrubs, mulch plants, vines, annuals/perennials, low hanging branches, ivy and blackberries provide excellent micro-climates. Add *freshly chipped & wetted hardwood chips – alder, maple, birch, ash, willow – up to 2″ on bottom layer. Mix in a wheelbarrow or on a clean tarp, at least 40LBS of chips w/ **sterile spawn at a ratio of 4:1(2, 3:1 ratios are easier learning curves). Leave a few big chunks, but thoroughly mix in spawn with woodchips. Add a few handfuls to 1st layer-broadcast horizontally. Lay wetted cardboard with a few holes, corrugated side down and then add the rest. The cardboard needs to be covered-well-innoculated woodchips can be up to a few inches deep on the edges, deeper towards the center. Let plants grow over as much edge as possible: this is where all the action happens. After a few weeks, you will know whether or not the mycelium is running, simply by looking at the cardboard. If it is not over 50% colonized-covered with rhizomorphic strands of mycelium, water the patch a little more. Misting up to 3-5 minutes of misting a day, AM or PM.

*= free, utility/arborist chips can also be used, too. Secondary saprobes, especially king stropharia thrive in these substrates. Too much fresh leafy matter is not as productive just the chips and branches.

**= Sterile spawn, after it colonizes a new substrate becomes naturalized. Use the same ratios. Learn to identify when your naturalized spawn is vigorous. Mushrooms growing on soft substrates-that crumble, natural or otherwise are not good sources of vigorous spawn: through good observation and getting to know your mushrooms this will help shorten the learning curve and improve yields.

Parasols on the Edge

This saprobic fungus loves grassy, composty areas. On the edge of a food forest or wood-chipped garden, they follow the nutrient rich, newly created edge and can fruit with Blewitts, w/a little luck. Choose area with dappled light and no other grass-loving mushrooms. This observation period can be shortened, by digging a hole(Large enough to place a mushroom kit in)and then filling in with soil, grass-clippings. Cover with wet cardboard corrugated side exposed, a lump of soil & more grass clippings. This protocol can be replicated with a few other secondary saprobes and other grass-dung-woodchip lovers. Or you can wait/observe the area for a few years and see what occurs…

Working With Douglas-Fir

Doug fir logs/stumps can be innocualted with oyster, ganoderma(s), chicken of the woods, hericium and a few others. They can be taken at any time of the year and can sit for a few months before being innoculated. Chips can make up 20-30% of the total pile. Anti-fungal compounds dissipate after a few weeks, but pure fir-chip beds do not produce as well as those with some hardwoods. Same with oak-not more than 20-30%. Oak can support a few different species, but like thin-barked hardwoods, oaks can lose their bark if not handled properly.

Oyster mushrooms in a box

Old shipping crates make good candidates for this low-tech mushroom project. Make sure the box is not already colonized with mold or other fungi. Shiny, yellow oat straw works well and after it has been soaked in water for at least two hours, it gets mixed with a spent oyster kit. Once the box is stuffed with straw that has been mixed with spawn, it is put in a place that receives dappled light. Low hanging trees, shrubs and bushes can expedite colonization by weeks. I have had quick colonizations with as little as 5LBS of spawn to 40LBS of freshly wetted straw! Higher ratios will produce bigger flushes.

Working With Logs

Alder & maple make good mushroom logs. The bark is thinner than Oaks, Doug Fir and Conifers-which means that you should cut thin-barked, hardwood trees in Feb (or before the leaves pop out). Once cut, they should be inoculated within a few weeks. Sticks and branches up to 3 inches can be chipped and innoculated into beds from Feb-Sept. Logs between 5-10 inches in diameter, between 2-4 feet long w/ no signs of colonization from other fungi can be used. Logs that have been in contact with the ground for more than a few months are not good candidates for projects. Stumps can support a few tasty species that also lend themselves to mycopermaculture techs. The closer the top of the stump is to the height of the plants, shrubs, bushes, dwarf trees that share the same habitat, the quicker the colonization, thus better harvests. Disc culture and wedge cuts work well for stump innoculations. Logs over 12 inches in diameter can be inoculated the same way. Some species need to have the log in contact with the ground, others, not so much. Please follow the protocols in the books/papers for the best results and do not let the logs or projects (once innoculated) dry out. This is where your observance of micro-climates will help with the best placement or implementation of these techs. Cold-weather strains of oyster, shiitake, lion’s mane and polypores exist and do well on Alder/maple in the PNW. Velvet foot, brick tops and few others occur naturally and can be used in mycopermaculture strategies. Birch, ash, poplar, cottonwood can also be used in for some species.

Cold Water Straw Fermentation

Cold water fermentation is an easy, fun, DIY technique for treating straw or other substrates for cultivation that doesn’t require the needless waste of wood or fossil fuels!

Simple and scalable, this method is a great technique to have in your toolbox if you’re doing low-tech cultivation. It prevents the cultivator from having to use fossil fuels and emit CO2 and doesn’t require any fancy equipment. Essentially a fermentation process, this method kills off competitors to your spawn by the simple act of submersion in water over a period of days. During the submersion process the anaerobic microorganisms live and grow while all the aerobic (oxygen loving) microorganisms die. When the water is removed after a week, the anaerobic bacteria die as soon as they are out in the open, leaving “clean” straw to use for inoculation. The process is quite simple and goes as follows:

1. Line a garbage can (or any hard, upright container) with a heavy duty (3 mil) trashbag, or find a big barrel that you’ll be able to dump.

2. Fill the bag with dry straw that has (ideally) been chopped with a weed whacker. I don’t personally have a weed whacker so I just break the straw up with my hands. But the increased surface area and smaller pieces provided by the use of this machine will enable better colonization and make handling easier later on.

3. Fill the can with water, covering the straw.

4. Add a weight on top to of the straw to keep it submerged. Big rocks and concrete blocks work well.

5. Put a lid on the can and keep it warm place, ideally in the sun.

6. Wait 7-12 days. If you’re in a warm environment, it’ll go a lot quicker than if you’re in cold environment.

7. At this point the water should be discolored and stinky. This is good, hopefully only anaerobic bacteria are still alive, and these will die when you expose the straw to air. You will now want to extract the straw from the water. If you decided to use a plastic bag inside of the barrel, twist up the top of the bag, poke some holes in it, and let the water drain out.

8. Inoculate your straw with Oyster, Shiitake, King Stropharia, Shaggy Mane, Blewit, or Elm Oyster spawn.

Stropharia ruggosoannulata

Common Name:
King Stropharia | Garden Giant | Burgandy/Wine Cap |Godzilla Mushroom

Where found:
Mid-Atlantic states, Europe, New Zealand, Japan. Hardwood forests and debris. Late spring to early fall.

Type of Rot:
White

Fruiting substrates/methods:
Easily transplanted. 1′ deep mixed woodchip pile.

Preferred Wood Types:
Thrives in complex environments, great for wood debris | Also great for wood less soils supplemented with straw | Fly larvae in mature caps good for fish | Great waterfilters removng farm effluents | Adaptive to many disturbed environments and compost heaps |

Known Remediation/Restoration potential:
Potentially one of the best for restoration due to its tolerance of complex habitats, love of disturbance, adaptive appetite, friendliness in the garden, and ease of growth.

Sparassis crispa

Common Name:
Cauliflower Mushroom

Where found:
Temperate Europe, NE & W NA. Base of coniferous tree stumps and oaks from late July to November.

Type of Rot:
Brown root and butt rot

Fruiting substrates/methods:
Stump culture

Preferred Wood Types:
Oak, alder, cottonwood, poplar, aspen, elm

Known Remediation/Restoration potential:
Potential Armillaria blight protection. Uptakes arsenic.

Psilocybe cubensis

Common Name:
San Isidro

Type of Rot:
White

Known Remediation/Restoration potential:
A powerful phosphorus scavenger, may be able to degrade phosphorus-bound toxins such as VX, sarin, soman, and to decompose munitions.

Pleurotus pulmonarius

Common Name:
Phoenix Oyster

Where found:
Widely in NA and Europe. Spring and summer on hardwoods and conifers.

Type of Rot:
White

Fruiting substrates/methods:
Log/stump culture

Preferred Wood Types:
Firs, spruce, alder, poplar, oak, maple, elm, aspen

Known Remediation/Restoration potential:
Aggressive and highly adaptive, this species has been shown effective against dioxins and TNT and is known to sequester cadmium, mercury, and copper. Like the other Oysters, it is very easy to cultivate.

Pleurotus ostreatus

Common Name:
Oyster | Hiratake

Where found:
Througout temperate and tropical forests of the world. On broadleaf hardwoods in spring and fall (esp cottonwood, oaks, alders, maple, aspen, ash, beech, birch, elm, willow, poplar). P. ostreatus var. columbinus occasionally found on conifers. In low valleys an riparian habitats.

Type of Rot:
White

Fruiting substrates/methods:
Log/stump culture

Preferred Wood Types:
A wide array. Cotton, coffee, mango, and date waste and many other agricultural waste products can be used as substrates.

Mycopermacultural uses:
Waste used as fodder for cows, pigs, and chickens | Converts 50% of sub into CO2 this is good for plants | Used as mulch reduces nematodes, increases water retention, and nutrition | Exuded metabolite is nematode tranquilizer

Known Remediation/Restoration potential:
An aggressive decomposer of a range of pollutants, notably PCBs and the PAHs found in petroleum products, pesticides, and many other toxins. It is also known to sequester cadmium and large amounts of mercury.

Pleurotus eryngii

Common Name:King Oyster

Where found:
Southern Europe, North Africa, central asia, Southern Russia. Off roots of hardwoods.

Type of Rot:
White

Fruiting substrates/methods:
Log/stump culture | Woodchip bed

Known Remediation/Restoration potential:
Known to breakdown a variety of toxins (including the base agent in Agent Orange, 2,4-dichorophenol), it is recommended for soil remediation and filtration applications.

Lentinula edodes

Common Name:
Shiitake | Donka | Pasania

Where found:
Originally known to Japan, China, and Korea it is now naturalizing in the western US. Saprophyte on Asian oaks and beeches.

Type of Rot:
White mottled rot

Preferred Wood Types:
Oak, sweetgum, poplar, cottonwood, eucalyptus, alder, ironwood, beech, birch, willow, and other hardwoods. No fruit woods. Should be incubated in shade without making ground contact.

Known Remediation/Restoration potential:
Known to breakdown PAHS, PCBs, and PCPs. Repacking spent kits in burlap sacks work as great filters.

Mycorrhizal Fungi 101

“It hardly states the case to say that mycorrhizas are important to ecosystem function. It is much more accurate to say that mycorrhizas are ecosystem function.” – Ted St. John, Ph. D.

Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with plants at the root level. These fungi enshroud and, in some case, penetrate the structure of plant roots to form an intimate connection that facilitates a 2-way nutrient exchange. The mycelium of mycorrhizal fungi essentially extend the roots system of their associated plants to help the plants easily draw in nutrients, minerals, and water from afar. In return, the mycorrhizal plant provides the fungus with photosynthesized sugars. The oldest plant fossils have been found with this association and it has been theorized that this relationship is what enabled plants to first come out of the oceans and on to land nearly 500 million years ago.

Today, nearly all plants still form mycorrhizal associatations. The few plants that do not are considered divergent weeds that have developed alternative strategies of survival. Most all cultivated plants perform much better when associated with mycorrhizal fungi and some plants require such associations to grow at all. Thus, it is highly recommended to learn to grow mycorrhizal fungi to improve soil fertility and increase plant health and productivity.

Types of Mycorrhizal Fungi

Most mycorrhizal fungi fall into two broad categories:

Ectomycorrhizal Fungi – These fungi are often specific in the plants they associate with and include many of the commonly wild-harvested mushrooms (e.g. Chanterelles, Boletes, Matsutake, and Russula species). They form complex multi-species relationships that are somewhat difficult to reproduce commerically. As such, these mycorrhizal fungi are not commonly cultivated.

Endomycorrhizal Fungi – Also known as Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (AM), these fungi include all the Glomeromycota species. These species are generalists, meaning that they can associate with many different plant species. One mycelial network of an endomycorrhizal fungus can be associated with numerous plants of various species and genera. Thus, these fungi literally connect the plants of the forest (or garden) together and channel resources among them. These fungi build soil structure and porosity through the creation of a sticky protein called glomalin, which is what distinguishes soil from dirt. These fungi are quite easy to grow and are very beneficial for the soil.

The mycorrhizal associations that form between plants and fungi are by and large the most studied plant symbiont interaction that has been scientifically explored. Study after study confirms the supreme benefits that plants derive from these ancient and incredible relationships. A list of some of the reasons to grow these fungi and the benefits they provide includes:

Plant Fertilizer Impacts – Increases nutrient use efficiency by plants (especially phosphorus), decreasing application needs – Decreases run off and leaching – Improves Water Quality
Soil Quality  – Improves soil structure & stability via Glomalin – Decreases erosion & topsoil loss – Enhances nutrient retention
Disease  – Suppression of pathogens – Increases plant health – Decreases pesticide use
Efficiency & Profitability – Improves root growth & survival – Decreases production time – Enhances marketability
Drought and Salinity  – Increases efficiency of water use – Decreases crop loss – Increases acreage of farm land
Product Quality  – Alters phytochemical attributes – Increases flowering – Enhances nutritional value

Cultivating Mycorrhizal Fungi

Cultivating Endomycorrhizal fungi (AM) is relatively easy. It essentially requires introducing commercial AM spore blends or native soil to a host plant crop to which the AM will come to associate with. Over a period of 3-4 months the AM grows and forms an association with the host plant(s). After that time, the plant is cut down and watering is stopped. This forces the AM to produce spore “packets” in the soil. Another 10-14 days later the roots of the host plant are harvested, chopped, and either stored or applied in the field as inoculum. These roots serve as inoculum because they are covered with the mycelium and the spore packets. In essence, you have enabled the AM to amplify itself via the introduction of the host plant.

A great intro to this method was developed over 6 years by the Rodale Institute. You can read their technique here. However, we must note that while this technique calls for the use of a tropical grass (with some justification), we at Radical Mycology would encourage working with grass species that are native to your environment, despite the potential for a lower overall AM yield.

Fermenting Fungi

“The proliferation of [microorganisms] in fermented vegetables enhances their digestibility and increases vitamin levels. These beneficial organisms produce numerous helpful enzymes as well as antibiotic and anticarcinogenic substances. [They] not only keep vegetables and fruits in a state of perfect preservation but also promotes the growth of healthy flora throughout the intestine.” —Sally Fallon, Nourishing Traditions

Food fermentation is a practice that has been discovered and revered by every traditional culture in the world, and for good reason. Fermentation is inexpensive, increases the shelf life of food, and provides numerous health benefits to foodstuffs, including:

Fermented foods improve digestion by introducing beneficial microflora to digestive systems. These microbes replenish the gut with microbes that may have been killed off by the consumption of antibiotics or chlorinated water, while also introducing new genetics to that are better adapted to environmental pathogens and stressors.
Raw fermented foods are rich in enzymes that help the body properly digest, absorb, and utilize nutrients.
Fermentation can greatly increase the amount of B2, B6, B7, and B9 in food.
Fermented foods may increase longevity. Many traditional cultures claim that their fermented foods contribute to their health. For example, in post-WWII Japan, villages that consumed large quantities of miso soup (a double fermented broth) has significantly lower rates of cancer and radiation sickness.

Further, fermentation enhances flavors. Our most prized gourmet foods and drinks (e.g. chocolate, high end cheeses, breads, cured meats, coffee, tea, and alcoholic beverages) are all created via fermentation.

The Fermenting Fungi

Though many of the more familiar fermented foods (e.g. sauerkraut and kimchi) are primarily created by bacteria, yeasts and other micro fungi are always involved in these ferments to some degree. There are also some fungal-dominated ferments that have been developed around the world, with:

Ales, beers, wines, meads, and alcoholic ciders are all produced by the fermentation of various yeasts. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the most common commercial yeast, though Brettanomyces species are used in many modern lambics. Sake is made through a multi-stage process that invoves Saccharomyces sake and Aspergillus oryzae.
Bread is leavened by trapping the gas expelled by Saccharomyces cerevisiae in sticky doughs prior to baking.
Tempeh is an Indonesian ferment made by growing the mold Rhizopus oligosporus on grains or legumes (e.g. soybeans).
Miso is a twice-fermented product created by packing rice or barley myceliated by Aspergillus oryzae into a crock for months or weeks. The liquid byproduct of this process is sold as tamari.
Gourmet white and blue cheeses (e.g. Camembert, Brie, Gorgonzola, and Roquefort) are produced by intentionally inoculating cheese curds with Penicillium camemberti and Penicillium roquefortii,
Sufu is a form of fermented soybean curd made by inoculating dry firm tofu with the spores of Actinomucor elegans, Mucor sufu, Mucor rouxanus, Mucor wutuongkiao, Mucor racemosus, or Rhizopus species and then soaking the tofu in a brine of rice wine, vinegar, chili peppers, or sesame oil.
Ragi Tapai is a term applied to the fermentation of various carbohydrate-rich foods (e.g. cassava, cooked white or glutinous rice, or sweet potatoes) that have been cooked, cooled, and inoculated with a mold and yeast.
Ang-Kak (red yeast rice) is made by inoculating non-glutinous rice with the mold Monascus purpueus. It has been used since the Tang Dynasty in China (ca. 800 CE) as a medicine for invigorating the body, improving digestion, and revitalizing the blood.
Katsuobushi (bonito) flakes are made from skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) that has been smoked and fermented with Aspergillus glaucus for several weeks. These flakes and kombu kelp are the main ingredients of dashi, the broth commonly used as a miso soup base.

Cultivating Fermenting Fungi

Small-scale production of the above often requires the importation of fungal cultures, though some can be “wild fermented” by the yeasts found on the surface of the ingredients. It is also possible to easily perpetuate these cultures using the same techniques found in mushroom cultivation. Maintaining one’s own collection of fermenting fungal cultures thus enables a person to derive all the above benefits at a fraction of their normal cost. Home brewers commonly keep a collection of various strains of yeasts for different types of alcoholic drinks and Indonesians keep stock of their tempeh cultures. Hopefully, as the skills of fungal cultivation become more commonplace in the coming yeasts, these fermented foods and others like them will also rise in popularity.

Mushroom Species Cultivation Requirements & Uses

Below are featured species known for their medicinal, remediative, or restorative potential.

Stropharia ruggosa-annulata

Trametes versicolor

Other Fungi

Mycorrhizal Fungi 101 Fermenting Fungi

Mushrooms As Food

Mushrooms are an excellent food source and addition to any diet or menu. Edible mushrooms come in a range of shapes, sizes, textures, colors, flavors, scents, and densities. The Piopinno Mushroom (Agrocybe aegarita), tastes like a porkchop. Lion’s Mane (Hericium erinaceus) mushrooms taste like lobster or eggplant. And the Chicken-of-the-Woods (Laetiporus sulphureus) tastes like, well, chicken. If you have only ever eaten white Button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus), you have most certainly been missing out.

Beyond tasting great, mushrooms are also a very nutritious addition to any cuisine. Mushrooms are by and large high in protein and dietary fiber while being low in fat, cholesterol, and carbohydrates. Depending on the food source (substrate) that they were grown on, mushrooms contain varying amounts of trace minerals. Mushrooms also synthesize high quantities of B vitamins and vitamin D (in fact, mushrooms are the only non-animal source of vitamin D), a great benefit for vegetarians and vegans. Other mushrooms contain varying amounts of other essential amino acids and vitamins such as A & K. Advanced cultivation research aims at developing specific substrate formulas of agricultural waste products to produce mushrooms with nutrient profiles that fulfill the specific needs and deficiencies of people in developing nations. So cool!

Whatever your reason for eating mushrooms, do note that you must cook your mushrooms prior to consumption. The cell walls of fungi are comprised of chitin, a compound that is indigestible to humans and must be broken down with heat. Recipes for cooking mushrooms abound, especially in Asian cuisines. A good rule of thumb however is to first dry saute your mushrooms in a skillet to cook off the high amount of water in the tissue. This not only makes the mushroom less watery and thin textured, it also concentrates and enhances the flavor of the mushroom. Once the water has cooked off, add your favorite high temperature oil and prepare as desired.

Lastly, if you are not planning to eat your mushrooms right away, they do store rather well. Drying works well to store most mushrooms long term. Some firm-textured species stand up to pickling. And old, funky wild mushrooms or the firm stalks of Oysters or Shiitake mushrooms can be used to make a delicious and healthy soup stock. On all fronts, mushrooms make a great addition to any pantry or palate for those interested in food sovereignty and healthy eating.

Cultivating Edible Mushrooms

Growing the edible mushrooms follows the principles and practices found on our Cultivation 101page. Learning this practice is incredibly empowering and a life skill for those interested growing and eating nutritious foods. Mushrooms can be grown off almost any agricultural waste, thereby creating food from debris that is often burned in fields or composted. Obtaining a mushroom yield off these resources prior to composting not only extends the value of these crops, but also creates richer compost in the process. Some mushrooms can even be grown off many urban waste products such as coffee grounds and cardboard! While some mushroom species are tricky to get to fruit yields from (such as the notoriously picky Maitake [Grifola frondosa] and slow growing Reishi [Ganoderma lucidum]), many are rather easy to grow once basic techniques and concepts are understood. Really, it is relatively easy to grow the mycelium of most any decomposer species. It is the expensive process of getting a high indoor yield that is a difficult art to perfect. Good beginning cultivator mushrooms include the following:

Hypsizygus ulmarius (Elm Oyster | Shirotamogitake)
Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster | Hiratake)
Pleurotus pulmonarius (Pheonix Oyster | Indian Oyster)
Stropharia ruggosoannulata (King Stropharia | Garden Giant | Burgandy/Wine Cap |Godzilla Mushroom)
Trametes versicolor (Turkey Tail | Yun Zhi | Kawaratake | Cloud Mushroom)

All of these species grow quite easily and are somewhat forgiving in regards to imperfect technique and all of these species can be grown using the techniques covered in the Radial Mycology publication Mushroom Cultivation for Remediation.

Medicinal Mushrooms 101

The use of mushrooms as medicine can be traced back thousands of years in cultures around the world. In China, usage of Ganoderma lucidum (the Reishi mushroom) was first documented around 500 BC. In the Italian Alps region, the frozen body of Otzi (who died approximately 3,300 BC) was found in 1991 carrying Piptoporus betulinus on his tool belt, potentially as a treatment for internal parasites. The Chinese Materia Medica lists dozens of mushrooms used for a range of medical conditions from arthritis and irregular menses to the enhancement of life force (chi) and the treatment of numerous forms of cancer. Modern science has backed up this rich history of anecdotal evidence with countless double-blind human trials and in vitro (lab-based) studies. Much of this modern research comes out of Asian countries. All of this evidence and history has led to a rather extensive (yet still growing) list of medicinal mushrooms and their variety of applications.

Below is a short list of some of the more commonly used and cultivated medicinal mushrooms:

Agaricus subrufescens – Extracts have antihyperglycemic and anticancer activities.
Agrocybe aegerita – Extracts have demonstrated anticancer and immunomodulatory activities in vivo.
Auricularia auricula – Extracts have antihyperglycemic in vivo, and anticancer, anticoagulant, and anticholesterol activities in vitro.
Coprinus comatus – Extracts have inhibited adenocarcinoma in vitro.
Cordyceps sinensis – An entomopathogenic mushroom collected on the Tibetan Plateau. The immunosuppressant ciclosporin was originally isolated from Cordyceps subsessilis. The adenosine analog cordycepin was originally isolated from Cordyceps. Other Cordyceps isolates include, cordymin, cordycepsidone, and cordyheptapeptide.
Flammulina velutipes – Possible applications in the development of vaccines and cancer immunotherapy.
Ganoderma lucidum – The mushroom with the longest record of medicinal use. It is thought to be useful against a wide variety of ailments.
Grifola frondosa – Potential anticancer and antihyperglycemic activities. D-fraction, MD-fraction, SX-fraction, and grifolan, are researched isolates of Grifola frondosa.
Lentinula edodes – Lentinan, AHCC, and eritadenine, are isolates of Lentinula edodes. In 1985 Japan approved lentinan as an adjuvant for gastric cancer. Studies there indicate prolonged survival and improved quality of life when gastric cancer patients with unresectable or recurrent diseases are treated with lentinan in combination with other chemotherapies.
Pholiota nameko – Has antiinflammatory, immunomodulatory, and hypolipidemic activities.
Pleurotus eryngii – Extracts have immunomodulatory activities in vitro.
Pleurotus ostreatus – Extracts show a strong potential as a treatment for high cholesterol. Anticancer and immunomodulatory activities present.
Sparassis crispa – Has anticancer and immunomodulating activity in vivo.
Trametes versicolor – Medicinal use of Trametes versicolor was first noted during the Ming Dynasty. PSK (Krestin, polysaccharide-K) and PSP (polysaccharopeptide) are protein-bound polysaccharides isolated from different Trametes versicolor mycelia strains. In Japan, PSK is a commonly prescribed chemotherapy adjunct that is covered by goverment issued health insurance.

Cultivating Medicinal Mushrooms

Growing the medicinal mushrooms follows the same principles and practices used to cultivate edible and remediative fungi (indeed, many of the above species fall into these two categories as well). For many species, one need only cultivate the mycelium instead of going through the difficult and intensive practice of growing the actual fruiting bodies (the mushrooms) of the fungus. While the fruiting bodies of the above species contain medicinal compounds, the mycelium itself may contain significant quantities of the same or similar compounds. Medicinal mushroom capsules sold in stores are often simply comprised of “myceliated brown rice,” literally mycelium that was cheaply grow on brown rice, dried, powdered, encapsulated, then sold for an incredible markup. Better products actually contain powdered fruitbodies. But for the Radical Mycologist, learning to produce your own myceliated brown rice is a cheap, simple, and powerful ability when developing a skill set for self sufficiency and medication.

Growing myceliated brown rice can be accomplished by following the same techniques describes in the Radical Mycology publication Mushroom Cultivation for Remediation (just don’t do the third, sawdust-based, step).

Mycoremediation & Restoration 101

Fungi are everywhere, constantly maintaining and healing the habitats of the world through their unique abilities to disassemble, move, and create nutrients above and below the soil horizon. Today humans are finally beginning to recognize many ways by which we can apply these fungal abilities to managed landscape and habitat regeneration projects. Currently, these practices can be split into two overlapping groups.

Fungal Rehabilitation/Regeneration

In habitats that have been disturbed by erosion, deforestation, wild fire, or other natural or human-caused disasters, fungi can be integrated into revegetation strategies to build and stabilize soil and, if needed, speed up decomposition to increase nutrient cycling rates. Example strategies include:

Cultivating, amplifying, and inoculating plant roots with native mycorrhizal fungi to support plant health, reduce erosion, increase water retention, improve soil structure, and the overall ecology.
Cultivating, amplifying, and inoculating organic matter with native decomposing fungi to decrease fire hazards and create topsoil in deforested or eroded areas. This will also lead to the increase in fungal species diversity while providing fodder for animals and insects.

Mycoremediation

In areas affected by chemical, elemental, and biological contaminants, fungi can be applied to reduce these toxins, potentially to non-toxic concentrations. Example mycoremediation strategies include:

Cultivating, amplifying, and inoculating soils with native mycorrhizal fungi to bind up or draw out heavy metals, such as arsenic, mercury, lead, radioactive cesium, and copper. Many ectomycorrhizal fungi have been shown to channel toxic heavy metals out of the soil and concentrate them into their fruit bodies.
Introducing mycelial networks into water systems to filter out silt and biological contaminants or bind heavy metals.
Cultivating, amplifying, and inoculating chemically-contaminated organic matter with decomposing fungi known to degrade the target compounds. A wide number of fungi (including molds, yeasts, descomposing fungi, and mycorrhizal species) host the ability to degrade many industrial waste products and chemical pollutants, including herbicides, petroleum fuels, dioxins, DDT, TNT, PCBs, chemical dyes, PAHs, and more. The fungi essentially use their natural digestive abilities to oxidize and degrade the compounds, transforming them into simpler byproducts.

Species to Know

Some of the best-studied remediative mushrooms include:

Irpex lacteus
Pearl Oyster (Pleurotus ostreatus)
Pestalotiopsis microspora
Phanerochaete chrysosporium
Shiitake (Lentinula edodes)
Smoky Polypore (Bjerkandera adjusta)
Turkey Tail (Trametes versicolor)

Cultivating Mushrooms for Mycoremediation

Most of the above species are wood-loving species that can be cultivated with the same techniques used for growing edible and medicinal mushrooms. For details on these techniques check out our zine and video on one low-cost and effective protocol for cultivating large quantities of mycelium.

Mushrooms as Spiritual Teachers

The human use of fungi for changing consciousness extends far into pre-history. Arguably, the first food product humans produced was a mead (honey wine). Early humans, so the thought goes, at some point discovered that by placing a beehive in a small body of water and then coming back a few days or weeks later, they would find the water transformed into an intoxicating drink. Many cultures around the world have since seen alcoholic drinks as a gift from the gods that allowed them to temporarily shed their ego and find deeper levels of connection with other people.

A Brief History

Archeological evidence does show that many cultures around the world used these fungi for ritualistic and sacred practices. The earliest depiction of entheogenic mushroom consumption might be a cave painting found in the upper Tassili platueu of northern Algeria that dates to at least 5,000 B.C., if not older.

The “Bee Shaman” of northern Algeria

Since that time, many other cultures around the world have developed rich traditions that utilize psychoactive mushroom species to bring about profound insight into the human predicament. In Mexico, the Mazatec and Aztec cultures have a well documented use of San Isidro (Psilocybe cubensis) in that region for hundreds, if not thousands, of years. In Siberia, the use of the Fly Agaric mushroom (Amanita muscaria) for intoxication is not only a long-standing tradition in with shamanic tribes of that area but has also been linked to the origination of the myth of Santa Claus! For more information on this, watch the free documentary The Pharmacratic Inquisition.

Even in the West, psychoactive fungi seemed to have played a significant role in the development of culture. In ancient Greece, the great statesmen and philosophers of the day would take part in an annual ritual to honor Persephone and Demeter that included the consumption of a visionary fungal drink. These highly secretive ceremonies, known as the Eleusian Mysteries, were multi-day events that perhaps contributed to some of the ideas and profound insights that laid a foundation to the great philosophical movements of the era. The ingredients used in the sacred drink are not known with certainty, though evidence suggests it might have been made from an extract of Ergot(Claviceps purpurea), an infectious fungal agent in rye that contains psychoactive derivatives of lysergic amide (LSA).

In the early part of the 20th century, Swiss chemist Albert Hoffman was studying extracts of Ergot for use as a hemostatic to control excessive bleeding during births. In the process of synthesizing the compounds in Ergot, Hoffman accidentally produced Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), a powerfully psychoactive compound, in 1938.

In the 1950s, banker, JP Morgan Vice President, and amateur ethnomycologist Gordon Wasson made a trip to Mexico to follow up a lead about a supposed mushroom practice outside the city of Oaxaca. Wasson eventually encountered Maria Sabina, the carrier of a shamanic tradition which used psychoactive fungi for inducing visions as part of a healing practice. Wasson took part in several mushroom sessions with Sabina and thereafter came back to the states to write an expose on the story for Life Magazine. The story became a sensation and soon bohemians, beatniks, and early hippies were heading to the Sierra Madres of Mexico in search of Sabina’s “holy children.” Some of these people later discovered how to cultivate these mushrooms on their own, in their closets. Thus began the era of home-scale mushroom cultivation.

During the 1960s and 70s, the large scale production and use of LSD and “magic mushrooms” created a significant cultural shift in the US and abroad. In tandem with a variety of social movements of the era, these substances helped their users see the value in honoring the planet and each other. Eventually, these substances were made illegal and classified as Schedule I drugs in the US (on par with heroin and cocaine). Despite the scant medical or anecdotal evidence to support such extreme decrees, LSD and many of the psychoactive mushrooms remain illegal today in many parts of the world.

Medical Applications of Magic Mushrooms

John Hopkins University in Baltimore, MD, has been conducting government approved studies over the last few years into the use of psilocybin (the active compound in most magic mushrooms) for medical purposes.

https://www.erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/images/faq_1.jpg

Studies with “psychedelic naive” patients repeatedly affirm that the use of this substance, even in one 5-hour session, can have profound and long-lasting effects on treating or controlling a range of mental and emotional disorders. Most notably, people with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD), chronic anxiety, or severe depression have all been shown to be living significantly improved lives after treatments with psilocybin; even 6 months later, when follow up studies are performed. Interpersonal dynamics are often improved as patients re-discover the beauty and brevity of life that is found in the psychedelic experience. People who are close to death or have terminal illnesses have repeatedly been shown to live fuller, happier lives, despite their diagnosis, after a controlled psilocybin experience. The experience gives these patients insights into the death process and, again, the value of life to the point that they are better able to accept their fate and embrace every sacred moment of life they have left to live. On a physical level, micro doses of psilocybin are able to completely treat or reduce cluster headaches, which have been reported to be so painful that some people have committed suicide over the pain.

It should be noted here that prior to the outlawing of LSD and psilocybin in the 1960s, both compounds were regularly used in clinical applications for psychedelic psychotherapy to treat many psychological and emotional disorders. A resurgence in this type of therapy is currently being pursued and supported by doctors and researchers working with the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS). Psilocybin is less toxic than aspirin or caffeine.

The Teachings of the Sacred Fungi

For those who have never consumed the entheogenic fungi, it is relatively easy to argue that the visions and insights experience by users are mere “hallucinations.” For the user, however, it is quite the opposite. The experiences had on higher doses of psilocybin are often found to be of such profundity that they are frequently described as, well, something that can’t be described.

Psilocybin is a boundary dissolving compound that, in some sense, strips the user of their ego and sense of individuality. Once the ego and contrived perceptions of one’s place and purpose in the world is set aside, the user soon comes to realize and sense a deep interconnectedness with the other lifeforms of the world/cosmos. This process is often described in terms similar to a mystical or deeply spiritual experience. For the user, this experience is far from a hallucination, and the insights and sensations imparted can often be seen as a turning point in one’s life. If a typical psilocybin session had to be summarized, one could argue that the main lessons gained from these fungi is that all life has inherent value and to take care of that life. This lesson extends from caring for one’s self, to those around them, to all the earth’s inhabitants, to the earth, and to the complex and dynamic multiverse beyond.

One turn off for some people who have never taken the sacred fungi is a fear of the infamous “bad trip.” These experiences typically involve deep sensations of fear, dread, or an unidentifiable presence that is unwelcome. While these sensations are unpleasant, they can often be resolved and cut short with the help of a “sitter,” a sober and experienced friend who sits through the session to offer verbal and physical support and reassurance for those difficult moments. Other “bad trips” come about when the user is confronted with inner wounds, personal, and interpersonal trauma or drama that is painful and unresolved. While this type of confrontation with one’s shadow aspects are never fun in the moment, in the long run they are often very insightful experiences that help the user see the root causes of unhealthy physical and mental habits. This is some of the medicine these fungi provide. Good tips on how to avoid a bad trip can be found here.

Taking the Sacrament

Consuming the sacred fungi is not something to be taken lightly. While many people in western cultures are introduced to these fungi in a more casual or party-like environment, it is recommend to approach these fungi as something to be honored and respected. The best psychedelic experience is had when taking advantage of the following recommendations:

Eat the fungi on an empty stomach.
Clear your calendar and head of any drama, commitments or concerns (ideally have the next 24 hours more or less open).
Take them in a safe, comfortable place. Some prefer during the day and outside. Others like indoors at night. Some like to take large doses and sit/lie in silent darkness to take a deep inner exploration.
Be surrounded by only your closest and more loved and trusted friends and family.
Go in to the experience with an openness. Some people like to go in with questions, others like to see what comes.
Have water on hand. Dress appropriately for the weather and be prepared for any change in weather. Be prepared for anything you might want or need to feel happy, safe, and secure.
Take the sacred fungi rarely and always with respect. Honor this natural gift and give thanks for the lessons and healing you receive.

A beginner dose of Psilocybe cubensis (the most common ‘shroom) is around 0.75-1.5g (dried). A more experienced user often consumes 1.5-3.5g (dried). A large dose would be around 3.5-5.0g or more (dried). Other species contain varying amounts of the active ingredients and should be consumed in different amounts. Folks at the Shroomery offer this dosage calculator to help guide your experience.

Cultivating the Sacred Fungi

Cultivating psilocybin containing mushrooms is illegal in the United States and many other countries around the world. Radical Mycology does not encourage the illegal cultivation of these fungi. That said, for informational reasons we will state that cultivating these mushroom species follows the exact same concepts and practices used to cultivate the edible and medicinal fungi. This main thing to pay attention to is whether the given mushroom species prefers wood-based substrates (such as Psilocybe cyanescens and P. azurescens) or compost-based substrates (such as P. cubensis).

Functional Mushrooms

The utilitarian uses of fungi are rather diverse and are found across cultures around the world. Scandinavian, African, Asian, Eastern European, and Native American cultures all have rich traditions regarding the use of fungi as food, ferments, medicine, clothing, tools, smudges, firestarter, art subjects, and spiritual teachers. These intersections are covered in various ways throughout this site but technically all fall under the general term of ethnomycology (the study of human interactions with fungi). It is really in many of the Western cultures that one finds that that majority of people are mushroom illiterate and often mycophobic (afraid of fungi).

Modern Utilitarian Uses of Fungi

In a modern context, several uses of fungi are of interest in regards to creating more sustainable and appropriate human lifestyles.

Mushroom Dyes – Dying with lichens (which are mostly comprised of fungi) dates back to ancient Egypt and is even quoted in the bible. This ancient tradition has been maintained in Scandinavian cultures and in the 20th century was further explored to great depths by Miriam Rice. Rice’s book, Mushrooms for Dyes, Paper, Pigments, Myco Stix, is arguably one of the best works on the topic and is the culmination of her life’s research on the subject before she died.

Nearly all the colors of the rainbow can be derived from mushrooms and lichens, including many shades of red that are difficult to extract from plant dyes. Experimentation will lead to new colors, to be sure, as materials, time, temperature, pH, and mordant (color setting agents) are all factors that play a role in the final color and quality acheived. A short list of mushrooms used for dyes can be found here.

Mushroom Paper – Miriam Rice also did much to explore the potential for using polypore fungi as a source for paper fiber. Again, depending on the fungus used, a wide range of colors and textures can be derived. This process should be considered an art project and not a sustainable replacement for plant derived paper. While tree harvesting for paper is not an ecologically sound process, we would rather see hemp paper replace tree paper than see our great fungal allies be used for paperback novels. Great walkthrus of the mushroom paper making process can be found here, here and here.

Mycotecture – This emerging field explores the uses of fungal mycelium as a building and insulating material. This is an exciting concept with only small scale prototypes having been experimented with. Artist Phil Ross has explored the use of this process in creative ways on his blog.

Biofuels & Methane Digesters -Energy production is being explored through the utilization of fungi. Fungal digestive enzymes (such as laccases) can be harvested and used in biocells to produce electrical currents. Bacteria and yeasts that ferment waste products (including feces) are also used to produce volatile compounds such as methane that can be captured, combusted and used a fuel source.

Mycopermaculture – The ways that fungi can be integrated into permaculture applications are numerous as fungi themselves seem to embody the principles and values of permaculture through their adaptive and integrative biology. In the garden setting, mycorrhizal fungi can be cultivated to enhance soil porosity, fertility, and productivity while macro fungi can be introduced as living mulch beds that companion with plants to enhance root stocks and increase yields. In a much larger picture, however, mushroom cultivation is itself a holistic, integrative, low-waste, high-yield practice that inherently embodies all of the principles of permaculture shown in this chart:

Mushroom Cultivation 101

A Brief History of Mushroom Cultivation

Some Reasons to Grow Mushrooms

There are numerous reasons to learn to cultivate mushrooms and other fungi, as this site attempts to demonstrate. However, some of the most apparent reasons include:

Mushrooms are a relatively cheap, year-round source of delicious, healthy whole food and potent natural medicine that can be grown on various urban and agricultural waste products.
Mushroom cultivation provides many applications for developing local jobs & revenue as well as community food security.
Ability to grow local mushrooms along with species not commercially available.
Versatile uses in the garden on the land for soil building, nutrient availability, and water retention.
Ability to remediate soil and water and rehabilitate damaged environments.
It’s sciencey & fun!

We Grow Decomposing Fungi

Commonly cultivated species include:

Agaricus blazei | A. subrufescens (Himematsutake | King Agaricus | Almond Portobello)
Agaricus bisporus (Portobello | Button | Crimini)
Agrocybe aegerita (Black Poplar | Pioppino)
Chlorophyllum rachodes (Shaggy parasol)
Coprinus comatus (Shaggy Mane | Lawyer’s Wig)
Flammulina velutipes (Enokitake | Nametake)
Fomes fomentarius (Tinder Conk | Hoof Fungus | Ice Man Polypore | Amadou)
Ganoderma applanatum (Artist’s Conk | Kofukitake)
Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi (Divine/Spiritual Mushroom in Japanese) | Ling Chi/Zhi (Tree of Life Mushroom in Chinese) | Mannentake (10,000-year mushroom in Japanese) | Panacea Polypore)
Grifola frondosa (Maitake (Dancing Mushroom) | Kumotake (Cloud Mushroom) | Hen-of -the-Woods)
Hericium abietis (Comb Tooth)
Hericium erinaceus (Lion’s Mane | Monkey’s Head | Sheep’s Head | Bear’s Head | Old Man’s Beard | Satyr’s beard | Pom Pom)
Hypholoma capnoides (Brown-Gilled Clustered Woodlover)
Hypsizygus tessulatus (Beech Mushroom | Bunashimeji)
Hypsizygus ulmarius (Elm Oyster | Shirotamogitake)
Inonotus obliquus (Chaga)
Laetiporu sulphureus (Chicken-of-the-Woods | Sulfur Shelf)
Lepista nuda (Blewit)
Lentinula edodes (Shiitake | Donka | Pasania)
Macrolepiota procera (Parasol Mushroom)
Morel angusticeps (Black Morel)
Pholiota nameko (Nameko | Slime Pholiota)
Piptoporus betulinus (Birch polypore | Kanbatake)
Pleurotus citrinopileatus (Golden Oyster | Tamogitake)
Pleurotus cystidiosus (Abalone | Maple Oyster)
Pleurotus djamor (Pink Oyster | Salmon Oyster)
Pleurotus eryngii (King Oyster)
Pleurotus eusomus (Tarragon Oyster)
Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster | Hiratake)
Pleurotus pulmonarius (Pheonix Oyster | Indian Oyster)
Pleurotus tuberregium (King Tuber | Tiger Milk)
Polyporus umbellatus (Zhu Ling | Umbrella Polypore)
Sparassis crispa (Cauliflower Mushroom)
Stropharia ruggosoannulata (King Stropharia | Garden Giant | Burgandy/Wine Cap |Godzilla Mushroom)
Trametes versicolor (Turkey Tail | Yun Zhi | Kawaratake | Cloud Mushroom)
Volvariella volvacea (Paddy Straw | Fukurotake)

Some of these species (such as the Oyster species and King Stropharia) are incredibly easy to grow and are recommended for the beginner.

An Overview of the Cultivation Process

The key stages to this practice in the sterile methodology are as follows:

Spores or a small amount of source mycelium (taken from a fresh mushroom or acquired commercially) is introduced to either a petri dish filled with nutrient-rich agar or a sugar-rich liquid broth. The mycelium will then grow over/through this medium.
7-21 days later, once this mycelium has grown out, a small amount of it is transferred from the agar or liquid broth to a container filled with cooked and sterilized grains.
10-21 days later these grains will be colonized and are then introduced to a final wood, manure, or compost-based substrate upon which the mushrooms will fruit.
This final substrate then colonizes over a matter of weeks or months and is then introduced to the correct environment to encourage mushroom development.

These methods include:

Fermenting substrates instead of using heat sources to pasteurize them.
Training species to have a strong immune system capable of out-competing molds and bacteria.
Growing mushrooms on kitchen scraps and other waste products.
Growing mushrooms in outdoor installations that are maintained by the seasons.
Implementing tools and techniques that enable aseptic work to be done in a relatively dirty environment.

Mushroom - Fruiting Fungi Bodie

Mushroom as a product and their role in mycoremediation

Abstract

Introduction

Mushroom as a product

Table 1

Mushroom as mycoremediation tool

Mycoremediation potential of mushroom

Biodegradation

Table 2

Biosorption

Table 3

Bioconversion

Table 4

Feasibility of the mycoremediation tool and processes

Table 5

Conclusion

Competing interests

Acknowledgement

What Are Mushrooms?

The Mushroom Lifecycle

Mushroom Cultivation 101

A Brief History of Mushroom Cultivation

Some Reasons to Grow Mushrooms

We Grow Decomposing Fungi

An Overview of the Cultivation Process

Simple Outdoor Cultivation

Cold Water Straw Fermentation

Stropharia ruggosoannulata

Sparassis crispa

Psilocybe cubensis

Pleurotus pulmonarius

Pleurotus ostreatus

Pleurotus eryngii

Lentinula edodes

Mycorrhizal Fungi 101

Types of Mycorrhizal Fungi

Cultivating Mycorrhizal Fungi

Fermenting Fungi

The Fermenting Fungi

Cultivating Fermenting Fungi

Mushroom Species Cultivation Requirements & Uses

Other Fungi

Mushrooms As Food

Cultivating Edible Mushrooms

Medicinal Mushrooms 101

Cultivating Medicinal Mushrooms

Mycoremediation & Restoration 101

Fungal Rehabilitation/Regeneration

Mycoremediation

Species to Know

Cultivating Mushrooms for Mycoremediation

Mushrooms as Spiritual Teachers

A Brief History

Medical Applications of Magic Mushrooms

The Teachings of the Sacred Fungi

Taking the Sacrament

Cultivating the Sacred Fungi

Functional Mushrooms

Modern Utilitarian Uses of Fungi

Mushroom Cultivation 101

A Brief History of Mushroom Cultivation

Some Reasons to Grow Mushrooms

We Grow Decomposing Fungi

An Overview of the Cultivation Process

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