Publication
Printing
To publish is to make content available to the general public.[1][2] While specific use of the term may vary among countries, it is usually applied to text, images, or other audio-visual content, including paper (newspapers, magazines, catalogs, etc.). The word publication means the act of publishing, and also refers to any printed copies.
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Legal definition and copyright
"Publication" is a technical term in legal contexts and especially important in copyright legislation. An author of a work generally is the initial owner of the copyright on the work. One of the copyrights granted to the author of a work is the exclusive right to publish the work.
In the United States, publication is defined as:
- the distribution of copies or phonorecords of a work to the public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending. The offering to distribute copies or phonorecords to a group of people for purposes of further distribution, public performance, or public display, constitutes publication. A public performance or display of a work does not of itself constitute publication.
- To perform or display a work "publicly" means –
- (1) to perform or display it at a place open to the public or at any place where a substantial number of people outside a normal circle of a family and its social acquaintances is gathered; or
- (2) to transmit or otherwise communicate a performance or display of the work to a place specified by clause (1) or to the public, by means of any device or process, whether the members of the public capable of receiving the performance or display receive it in the same place or in separate places and at the same time or at different times.
- —17 USC 101
- The US Copyright Office provides further guidance in Circular 40 [1], which states: "When the work is reproduced in multiple copies, such as in reproductions of a painting or castings of a statue, the work is published when the reproductions are publicly distributed or offered to a group for further distribution or public display".
Generally, the right to publish a work is an exclusive right of copyright owner (17 USC 106), and violating this right (e.g. by disseminating copies of the work without the copyright owner's consent) is a copyright infringement (17 USC 501(a)), and the copyright owner can demand (by suing in court) that e.g. copies distributed against their will be confiscated and destroyed (17 USC 502, 17 USC 503). Exceptions and limitations are written into copyright law, however; for example, the exclusive rights of the copyright owner eventually expire, and even when in force, they don't extend to publications covered by fair use or certain types of uses by libraries and educational institutions.
The definition of "publication" as "distribution of copies to the general public with the consent of the author" is also supported by the Berne Convention, which makes mention of "copies" in article 3(3), where "published works" are defined.[1] In the Universal Copyright Convention, "publication" is defined in article VI as "the reproduction in tangible form and the general distribution to the public of copies of a work from which it can be read or otherwise visually perceived."[2] Many countries around the world follow this definition, although some make some exceptions for particular kinds of works. In Germany, §6 of the Urheberrechtsgesetz additionally considers works of the visual arts (such as sculptures) "published" if they have been made permanently accessible by the general public (i.e., erecting a sculpture on public grounds is publication in Germany).[3] Australia and the UK (as the U.S.) do not have this exception and generally require the distribution of copies necessary for publication. In the case of sculptures, the copies must be even three-dimensional.[4][5]
Biological classification
In biological classification (taxonomy), the publication of the description of a taxon has to comply with some rules. The definition of the "publication" is defined in nomenclature codes. Traditionally there were the following rules:
- The publication must be generally available.
- The date of publication is the date the published material became generally available.
Electronic publication with some restrictions is permitted for publication of scientific names of fungi since 1 January 2013.[6]
Types
Material types
There is an enormous variety of material types of publication, some of which are:
- Book: Pages attached together between two covers, to allow a person to read from or write in.
- Bulletin: Information written in short on a flyer or inside another publication for public viewing. Bulletins are also brief messages or announcements broadcast to a wide audience by way of TV, radio, or internet.
- Booklet: Leaflet of more than one sheet of paper, usually attached in the style of a book.
- Broadside: A large single sheet of paper printed on one side, designed to be plastered onto walls. Produced from 16th - 19th cent. Became obsolete with the development of newspapers and cheap novels.
- Flyer or handbill: A small sheet of paper printed on one side, designed to be handed out free
- Leaflet: Single sheet of paper printed on both sides and folded.
- Journal: A book with blank pages inside, to allow you to write down any personal information. Another word for a newspaper or similar publication.
- Newsletter: A bulletin, leaflet, pamphlet, or newspaper distributed to a specific audience.
- Newspaper: A publication of several pages printed with news, sports, information, and advertising. Newspapers may be published and distributed daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, or annually.
- Magazine: A book with front and back paper covers, printed with information and advertising. Some magazines are published and distributed every week or every month.
- Pamphlet: Can be a leaflet, booklet or saddle-stapled booklet.
Electronic publishing
Internet Map Visualization
Electronic publishing (also referred to as e-publishing or digital publishing or online publishing) includes the digital publication of e-books, digital magazines, and the development of digital libraries and catalogues. Electronic publishing has become common. It is also becoming common to distribute books, magazines, and newspapers to consumers through digital devices, by online sources.
Modern computing and networking have revolutionized publishing.
Server rack, delivering data to inquiries.
Content types
Types of publication can also be distinguished by content:
- Brochure: an informative document made for advertising products or services, usually in the form of a pamphlet or leaflet.
- Tract: a religious or political argument written by one person and designed to be distributed free, usually in the form of a booklet or pamphlet, but sometimes longer.
- Monograph: a long research publication written by one person.
Unpublished works
A work that has not undergone publication, and thus is not generally available to the public, or for citation in scholarly or legal contexts, is called an unpublished work. In some cases unpublished works are widely cited, or circulated via informal means.[7] An author who has not yet published a work may also be referred to as being unpublished.
The status of being unpublished has specific significance in the legal context, where it may refer to the non-publication of legal opinions in the United States
What is the difference between “Published” vs. “Unpublished” works, why does it matter, and how does the difference relate to Online vs. Print publishing?
U.S. Copyright Law defines publication as:
“the distribution of copies or phonorecords of a work to the public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental lease, or lending. The offering to distribute copies or phonorecords to a group of persons for purposes of further distribution, public performance, or public display constitutes publication. A public performance or display of a work does not itself constitute publication.”
Publication under the first part of the definition is rather straightforward. Publication under the second part is a bit more complicated. Generally, publication occurs on the date on which copies of the work are first made available to the public. Unpublished works are those which have not been distributed in any manner.
Although prior to 1978, copyright protection generally was available only for published works, such protection is now available for published as well as unpublished works.
Whether a work is published or unpublished still matters for certain reasons. For example:
Whether a work is published or unpublished still matters for certain reasons. For example:
- works that are published in the United States are subject to mandatory deposit in the Library of Congress;
- unpublished works are eligible for protection without regard to the nationality or where the author lives;
- certain limitations on the rights of a copyright owner are applicable only to published works; and
- the duration of protection for works made for hire may be determined by the date of publication.
For more information, see Distinction Between Published and Unpublished Works
Academic journal
An academic or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny, and discussion of research. They are usually peer-reviewed or refereed.[1] Content typically takes the form of articles presenting original research, review articles, and book reviews. The purpose of an academic journal, according to Henry Oldenburg (the first editor of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society), is to give researchers a venue to "impart their knowledge to one another, and contribute what they can to the Grand design of improving natural knowledge, and perfecting all Philosophical Arts, and Sciences."[2]
The term academic journal applies to scholarly publications in all fields; this article discusses the aspects common to all academic field journals. Scientific journals and journals of the quantitative social sciences vary in form and function from journals of the humanities and qualitative social sciences; their specific aspects are separately discussed.
The first academic journal was Journal des sçavans (January 1665), followed soon after by Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society(March 1665), and Mémoires de l'Académie des Sciences (1666). The first fully peer-reviewed journal was Medical Essays and Observations(1733).[3]
Contents
History
Adrien Auzout's "A TABLE of the Apertures of Object-Glasses" from a 1665 article in Philosophical Transactions, showing a table
The idea of a published journal with the purpose of "[letting] people know what is happening in the Republic of Letters" was first conceived by François Eudes de Mézeray in 1663. A publication titled Journal littéraire général was supposed to be published to fulfill that goal, but never was. Humanist scholar Denis de Sallo (under the pseudonym "Sieur de Hédouville") and printer Jean Cusson took Mazerai's idea, and obtained a royal privilege from King Louis XIV on 8 August 1664 to establish the Journal des sçavans. The journal's first issue was published on 5 January 1665. It was aimed at people of letters, and had four main objectives:[4]
- review newly published major European books,
- publish the obituaries of famous people,
- report on discoveries in arts and science, and
- report on the proceedings and censures of both secular and ecclesiastical courts, as well as those of Universities both in France and outside.
Soon after, the Royal Society established Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in March 1665, and the Académie des Sciences established the Mémoires de l'Académie des Sciences in 1666, which more strongly focused on scientific communications.[5] By the end of the 18th century, nearly 500 such periodical had been published,[6] the vast majority coming from Germany (304 periodicals), France (53), and England (34). Several of those publications however, and in particular the German journals, tended to be short lived (under 5 years). A.J. Meadows has estimated the proliferation of journal to reach 10,000 journals in 1950, and 71,000 in 1987. However, Michael Mabe warns that the estimates will vary depending on the definition of what exactly counts as a scholarly publication, but that the growth rate has been "remarkably consistent over time", with an average rates of 3.46% per year from 1800 to 2003.[7]
In 1733, Medical Essays and Observations was established by the Medical Society of Edinburgh as the first fully peer-reviewed journal.[3] Peer review was introduced as an attempt to increase the quality and pertinence of submissions.[8] Other important events in the history of academic journals include the establishment of Nature (1869) and Science (1880), the establishment of Postmodern Culture in 1990 as the first online-only journal, the foundation of arXiv in 1991 for the dissemination of preprints to be discussed prior to publication in a journal, and the establishment of PLOS One in 2006 as the first megajournal.[3]
Scholarly articles
There are two kinds of article or paper submissions in academia: solicited, where an individual has been invited to submit work either through direct contact or through a general submissions call, and unsolicited, where an individual submits a work for potential publication without directly being asked to do so.[9] Upon receipt of a submitted article, editors at the journal determine whether to reject the submission outright or begin the process of peer review. In the latter case, the submission becomes subject to review by outside scholars of the editor's choosing who typically remain anonymous. The number of these peer reviewers (or "referees") varies according to each journal's editorial practice – typically, no fewer than two, though sometimes three or more, experts in the subject matter of the article produce reports upon the content, style, and other factors, which inform the editors' publication decisions. Though these reports are generally confidential, some journals and publishers also practice public peer review. The editors either choose to reject the article, ask for a revision and resubmission, or accept the article for publication. Even accepted articles are often subjected to further (sometimes considerable) editing by journal editorial staff before they appear in print. The peer review can take from several weeks to several months.[10]
Reviewing
Review articles
Review articles, also called "reviews of progress," are checks on the research published in journals. Some journals are devoted entirely to review articles, some contain a few in each issue, and others do not publish review articles. Such reviews often cover the research from the preceding year, some for longer or shorter terms; some are devoted to specific topics, some to general surveys. Some journals are enumerative, listing all significant articles in a given subject; others are selective, including only what they think worthwhile. Yet others are evaluative, judging the state of progress in the subject field. Some journals are published in series, each covering a complete subject field year, or covering specific fields through several years. Unlike original research articles, review articles tend to be solicited submissions, sometimes planned years in advance. They are typically relied upon by students beginning a study in a given field, or for current awareness of those already in the field.[11]
Book reviews
Reviews of scholarly books are checks upon the research books published by scholars; unlike articles, book reviews tend to be solicited. Journals typically have a separate book review editor determining which new books to review and by whom. If an outside scholar accepts the book review editor's request for a book review, he or she generally receives a free copy of the book from the journal in exchange for a timely review. Publishers send books to book review editors in the hope that their books will be reviewed. The length and depth of research book reviews varies much from journal to journal, as does the extent of textbook and trade book review.[12]
Prestige and ranking
An academic journal's prestige is established over time, and can reflect many factors, some but not all of which are expressible quantitatively. In each academic discipline, there are dominant journals that receive the largest number of submissions, and therefore can be selective in choosing their content. Yet, not only the largest journals are of excellent quality.[13]
In the natural sciences and in the social sciences, the impact factor is an established proxy, measuring the number of later articles citing articles already published in the journal. There are other quantitative measures of prestige, such as the overall number of citations, how quickly articles are cited, and the average "half-life" of articles. Clarivate Analytics' Journal Citation Reports, which among other features, computes an impact factor for academic journals, draws data for computation from the Science Citation Index Expanded (for natural science journals), and from the Social Sciences Citation Index (for social science journals).[13] Several other metrics are also used, including the SCImago Journal Rank, CiteScore, Eigenfactor, and Altmetrics.
In the Anglo-American humanities, there is no tradition (as there is in the sciences) of giving impact-factors that could be used in establishing a journal's prestige. Recent moves have been made by the European Science Foundation (ESF) to change the situation, resulting in the publication of preliminary lists for the ranking of academic journals in the humanities.[13] These rankings have been severely criticized, notably by history and sociology of science British journals that have published a common editorial entitled "Journals under Threat."[14]Though it did not prevent ESF and some national organizations from proposing journal rankings, it largely prevented their use as evaluation tools.[15]
In some disciplines such as knowledge management/intellectual capital, the lack of a well-established journal ranking system is perceived by academics as "a major obstacle on the way to tenure, promotion and achievement recognition".[16] Conversely, a significant number of scientists and organizations consider the pursuit of impact factor calculations as inimical to the goals of science, and have signed the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment to limit its use.
The categorization of journal prestige in some subjects has been attempted, typically using letters to rank their academic world importance.
Three categories of techniques have developed to assess journal quality and create journal rankings:[17]
- stated preference;
- revealed preference; and
- publication power approaches[18]
Costs
Many academic journals are subsidized by universities or professional organizations, and do not exist to make a profit. However, they often accept advertising, page and image charges from authors to pay for production costs. On the other hand, some journals are produced by commercial publishers who do make a profit by charging subscriptions to individuals and libraries. They may also sell all of their journals in discipline-specific collections or a variety of other packages.[19]
Journal editors tend to have other professional responsibilities, most often as teaching professors. In the case of the largest journals, there are paid staff assisting in the editing. The production of the journals is almost always done by publisher-paid staff. Humanities and social science academic journals are usually subsidized by universities or professional organization.[20]
New developments
The Internet has revolutionized the production of, and access to, academic journals, with their contents available online via services subscribed to by academic libraries. Individual articles are subject-indexed in databases such as Google Scholar. Some of the smallest, most specialized journals are prepared in-house, by an academic department, and published only online – such form of publication has sometimes been in the blog format though some, like the open access journal Internet Archaeology, use the medium to embed searchable datasets, 3D models, and interactive mapping.[21] Currently, there is a movement in higher education encouraging open access, either via self archiving, whereby the author deposits a paper in a disciplinary or institutional repository where it can be searched for and read, or via publishing it in a free open access journal, which does not charge for subscriptions, being either subsidized or financed by a publication fee. Given the goal of sharing scientific research to speed advances, open access has affected science journals more than humanities journals.[22] Commercial publishers are experimenting with open access models, but are trying to protect their subscription revenues.[23]
The much lower entry cost of on-line publishing has also raised concerns of an increase in publication of "junk" journals with lower publishing standards. These journals, often with names chosen as similar to well-established publications, solicit articles via e-mail and then charge the author to publish an article, often with no sign of actual review. Jeffrey Beall, a research librarian at the University of Colorado, has compiled a list of what he considers to be "potential, possible, or probable predatory scholarly open-access publishers"; the list numbered over 300 journals as of April 2013, but he estimates that there may be thousands.[24] The OMICS Publishing Group, which publishes a number of the journals on this list, has threatened to sue Beall.[25]
Some academic journals use the registered report format, which aims to counteract issues such as data dredging and hypothesizing after the results are known. For example, Nature Human Behaviour has adopted the registered report format, as it "shift[s] the emphasis from the results of research to the questions that guide the research and the methods used to answer them".[26] The European Journal of Personalitydefines this format: "In a registered report, authors create a study proposal that includes theoretical and empirical background, research questions/hypotheses, and pilot data (if available). Upon submission, this proposal will then be reviewed prior to data collection, and if accepted, the paper resulting from this peer-reviewed procedure will be published, regardless of the study outcomes."[27]
Lists of Academic Journals
Wikipedia has many Lists of Academic Journals by discipline, such as List of African Studies Journals and List of Forestry Journals. The largest database providing detailed information about journals is Ulrichs Global Serials Directory. Other databases providing detailed information about journals are the Modern Language Association Directory of Periodicals and Genamics JournalSeek. Journal hosting websites like Project MUSE, JSTOR, Pubmed, Ingenta Web of Science, and Informaworld also provide journal lists. Some sites evaluate journals, providing information such as how long a journal takes to review articles and what types of articles it publishes.[28]
Academic writing
Academic writing, or scholarly writing is a prose register that is conventionally characterized by "evidence...that the writer(s) have been persistent, open-minded, and disciplined in study"; that prioritizes "reason over emotion or sensual perception"; and that imagines a reader who is "coolly rational, reading for information, and intending to formulate a reasoned response."[1] The particular stylistic means of achieving these conventions can differ considerably by academic discipline, however; these differences help explain the distinctive sounds of, for example, writing in history versus engineering or physics versus philosophy.[2][3] One attempt to account for these differences in writing is known as the theory of "discourse communities,"[4] as explained in more detail below.
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Discourse community
A discourse community is essentially a group of people that shares mutual interests and beliefs. "It establishes limits and regularities...who may speak, what may be spoken, and how it is to be said; in addition [rules] prescribe what is true and false, what is reasonable and what foolish, and what is meant and what not."[citation needed]
The concept of a discourse community is vital to academic writers across nearly all disciplines, for the academic writer's purpose is to influence their community to think differently. For this reason the academic writer must follow the constraints set by the community so his or her ideas earn approval and respect.
Discourse community constraints
Constraints are the discourse community's written and unwritten conventions about what a writer can say and how he or she can say it. They define what is an acceptable argument. Each discourse community expects to see a writer construct his or her argument using their conventional style of language and vocabulary, and they expect a writer to use the established intertext within the discourse community as the building blocks for his or her argument.
Writing for a discourse community
In order for a writer to become familiar with some of the constraints of the discourse community they are writing for. Across most discourses communities, writers will:
- Identify the novelty of their position
- Make a claim, or thesis
- Acknowledge prior work and situate their claim in a disciplinary context
- Offer warrants for one's view based on community-specific arguments and procedures
Each of theses above are constructed differently depending on the discourse community the writer is in. For example, the way a claim is made in a high school paper would look very different from the way a claim is made in a college composition class.[5] It is important for the academic writer to familiarize himself or herself with the conventions of the discourse community by reading and analyzing other works, so that the writer is best able to communicate his or her ideas.
Novel argument
Within discourse communities, academic writers build on top of the ideas established by previous writers.
Good academic writers know the importance of researching previous work from within the discourse community and using this work to build their own claims. By taking these ideas and expanding upon them or applying them in a new way, a writer is able to make their novel argument.
Intertextuality
Intertextuality is the combining of past writings into original, new pieces of text. Usually attributed to Julia Kristeva, the concept of intertextuality is helpful for understanding that all texts are necessarily related to prior texts through a network of explicit or implicit links, allusions, repetitions, acknowledged or unacknowledged inspiration, and direct quotations.[6] Writers (often unwittingly) make use of what has previously been written and thus some degree of borrowing is inevitable. One of the most salient features of academic writing irrespective of discipline is its unusually explicit conventions for marking intertextuality through citation and bibliography. Conventions for these markings (e.g., MLA, APA, IEEE, Chicago, etc.) vary by discourse community.
Conversation
Factoring in intertextuality, the goal of academic writing is not simply creating new ideas, but to offer a new perspective and link between already established ideas. This is why gathering background information and having past knowledge is so important in academic writing. A common metaphor used to describe academic writing is "entering the conversation", a conversation that began long before you got there and will continue long after you leave. A quote from Kenneth Burke encapsulates this metaphor:
Intertextuality plays into this because without it there would be no conversations, just hundreds of thousands of writings not connected or able to build on each other. The listening until you can join the conversation can be seen as doing research. All of the research you read, is built on research instead of self-knowledge.
Key elements
A number of areas of importance in all academic and scholarly writing are:
- Formal style or register
- Writing should not be casual, but be in a appropriate formal register.[7]
- Appropriate references
- Generally speaking, the range and organization of references illustrate the author's awareness of the current state of knowledge in the field (including major current disagreements or controversies); typically the expectation is that these references will be formatted in the relevant disciplinary citation system.[8]
- Bibliography
- Typically this lists those articles read as background, and will include the sources of individual citations.
- Plagiarism
- Plagiarism, the "wrongful appropriation of another author's language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions", and the representation of them as one's own original work is considered academic dishonesty, and can lead to severe consequences.[9]
Academic document types
- Book, in many types and varieties
- Chapter in an edited volume
- Book report
- Conference paper
- Dissertation; usually between 6,000 and 20,000 words in length
- Essay; usually short, between 1,500 and 6,000 words in length
- Explication; usually a short factual note explaining some obscure part of a particular work; e.g. its terminology, dialect, allusions or coded references
- Research Article
- Research Paper; longer essay involving library research, 3000 to 6000 words in length
- Technical report
- Thesis; completed over a number of years, often in excess of 20,000 words in length
- Translation
For students
- Exam questions and Essay titles; the formulation of these
- Instructional pamphlet, or hand-out, or reading list; usually meant for students
- Presentations; usually short, often illustrated
Summaries of knowledge
- Annotated bibliography
- Annotated catalogue, often of an individual or group's papers and/or library
- Creating a simplified graphical representation of knowledge; e.g. a map, or refining a display generated from a database. There will often be a 'key' or written work incorporated with the final work
- Creating a timeline or chronological plan. There will often be a 'key' or written work incorporated with the final work
- Devising a classification scheme; e.g. for animals, or newly arisen sub-cultures, or a radically new style of design
- Encyclopedia entry
- Journal article (e.g. History Today); usually presenting a digest of recent research
- Literature review; a summary and careful comparison of previous academic work published on a specific topic
- Site description and plan (e.g. in archeology)
Collating the work of others
- Anthology; collection, collation, ordering and editing of the work of others
- Catalogue raisonné; the definitive collection of the work of a single artist, in book form
- Collected works; often referred to as the 'critical edition'. The definitive collection of the work of a single writer or poet, in book form, carefully purged of publishers errors and later forgeries, etc.
- Monograph or exhibition catalog; usually containing exemplary works, and a scholarly essay. Sometime contains new work by a creative writer, responding to the work
- Transcribing, selecting and ordering oral testimony (e.g. oral history recordings)
Research and planning
- Experimental plan
- Laboratory report
- Raw data collection plan
- Research plan (sometimes called desk-based research).
- Structured notes
Disseminating knowledge outside the academy
- Call for papers
- Documentary film script or TV script or radio script
- Obituary
- Opinion; an academic may sometimes be asked to give an expert written opinion, for use in a legal case before a court of law
- Newspaper opinion article
- Public speech or lecture
- Review of a book, film, exhibition, event, etc.
- Think-tank pamphlet, position paper, or briefing paper
Technical or administrative forms
- Brief; short summary, often instructions for a commissioned work
- Peer review report
- Proposal for research or for a book
- White paper; detailed technical specifications and/or performance report
Personal forms
These are acceptable to some academic disciplines, e.g. Cultural studies, Fine art, Feminist studies, Queer theory, Literary studies.
- Artist's book or Chapbook
- Autobiography
- Belles-lettres; stylish or aesthetic writing on serious subjects, often with reference to one's personal experience
- Commonplace book
- Diary or Weblog
- Memoire; usually a short work, giving one's own memories of a famous person or event
- Notebooks
Newer forms
- Collaborative writing, especially using the internet
- Hypertext, often incorporating new media and multimedia forms within the text
- Performative writing (see also: belles-lettres)
Format
A commonly recognized format for presenting original research in the social and applied sciences is known as IMRD, an initialism that refers to the usual ordering of subsections:
- Introduction (Overview of relevant research and objective of current study)
- Method (Assumptions, questions, procedures described in replicable or at least reproducible detail)
- Results (Presentation of findings; often includes visual displays of quantitative data charts, plots)
and
- Discussion (Analysis, Implications, Suggested Next Steps)
Standalone methods sections are atypical in presenting research in the humanities; other common formats in the applied and social sciences are IMRAD (which offers an "Analysis" section separate from the implications presented in the "Discussion" section) and IRDM (found in some engineering subdisciplines, which features Methods at the end of the document).
Other common sections in academic documents are:
- Abstract
- Acknowledgments
- Indices
- Bibliography
- List of references
- Appendix/Addendum, any addition to a document
What It Means to be Published
Publication is very straightforward: it means sharing your writing with someone else. That someone can be your grandfather, your writing group, or the readers of The Atlantic Monthly. If you send your poem to twelve magazines and get twelve rejection slips, you can at least be sure that twelve people have now read that poem, that it has entered their consciousness and resides there, somewhere, which is, really, one of the reasons we write (and publish): to enter the consciousness of someone else. The same reason we speak. To be heard, to be noticed, to change, however minutely, the world around us.
That said, there are a number of different types of and venues for publication. All types of publication, except self-publication, indicate that someone has selected or screened your work. While you may not actually get money, it's proof that at least one person has deemed your writing worth the time it takes to read it: thus, more people (especially editors) will be willing to consider reading other writing of yours. In other words, getting published gives your writing credibility.
That said, there are a number of different types of and venues for publication. All types of publication, except self-publication, indicate that someone has selected or screened your work. While you may not actually get money, it's proof that at least one person has deemed your writing worth the time it takes to read it: thus, more people (especially editors) will be willing to consider reading other writing of yours. In other words, getting published gives your writing credibility.
Publishing Your Writing
This guide offers information on the most basic aspects of publishing your writing, from defining what it is, how to go about submitting, to offering advice about what to do once you've been published
Self-Publication
Self-publication is any type of publication in which you (the writer) foot the overhead costs, and which thus allows you to make the final decision about what gets published and what quality that work will be. With the advent of the world-wide web, more people have access to self-publication than ever before. Anyone can put up a website and publish their theory of the universe, their favorite sweet potato recipes, or their eight-hundred-page novel in verse; however, just because they've posted it doesn't mean anyone will read it. There are thousands of web novels out there; very few have managed to make it big. Likewise, there are hundreds of so-called vanity presses which will accept any manuscript for a specified fee, and for this fee will print the manuscript and distribute it. But be warned: other editors and publishers will not consider self-publication to be an actual credential (unless your book has managed to sell well). Despite notable vanity-press veterans-Walt Whitman's Leaves of Grass was originally a vanity press book-there is a definite stigma attached to this type of publication. Engage in at your own risk. For more information on self-publication
Letters to the Editor
Letters to the editor is one of the places nearly anyone, with persistence, can get published and read by a large audience. Some publications are able to publish all of the letters they receive, but most exercise some form of discretion. Obvious screening techniques include discarding any letter that is abusive, racist, heavy with obscenities, etc., as well as overly long letters. Depending on the publication, letters are selected based on a variety of factors, including relevance, timeliness, succinctness, clarity, and the clearest statement of a common sentiment.
Newspapers & Publications with a Staff of Writers
Newspapers tend to employ most of their own writers, who do the reporting, writing, and featured columns and editorials. True editorials are written by the editor and are statements of the paper's philosophical/ political leanings; columns and opinion pieces may be written by regular employees or freelance writers and are usually chosen to represent a broader range of interests. Reporting is done by a combination of the newspaper's own reporters (and remember, a bigger paper has more reporters) and by employees of the Associated Press, a non-profit collective that supports a staff of 3700 reporters and photographers around the world. Feature articles may be written by the paper's employees or by freelance writers, and local papers may be a good place to get started publishing. Typically, feature articles are neutral in tone but can use literary techniques such as scene and dialogue.
Literary Magazines
Most fiction and nearly all poetry is currently published only by literary magazines. In addition, many of these magazines publish creative nonfiction of various sorts. Frequency of publication ranges from weekly (such as The New Yorker), to monthly, to quarterly (four times a year) or less. Some of these publications accept material only from experienced writers, from agents or by solicitation (meaning they contact writers themselves); many others are open to beginning writers. All expect a certain level of professionalism in submissions.
Remember that most literary magazines receive upwards of 300 manuscripts a month, from which even the largest will only be able to select a few. Take the inevitable rejections in stride: it is not at all uncommon to hear of writers who submitted a work ten times, twenty times, or more, only to be finally have their work be accepted for publication or even win a prize. So much depends on individual taste. Persistence pays off!
Remember that most literary magazines receive upwards of 300 manuscripts a month, from which even the largest will only be able to select a few. Take the inevitable rejections in stride: it is not at all uncommon to hear of writers who submitted a work ten times, twenty times, or more, only to be finally have their work be accepted for publication or even win a prize. So much depends on individual taste. Persistence pays off!
Other Types of Magazines
Writers of nonfiction have a very large and diverse market open to them, and it is possible for a writer who is committed, disciplined, and energetic to make a living writing this genre. Cultivate a style, devote part of every writing day to the business of publication, and be willing to accept numerous small assignments at first to build up your reputation and repertoire. Start with the small publications and work up. For more information, including advice, markets, and guidelines, check out www.writersdigest.com.
Scholarly Journals
The purpose of scholarly journals is to share findings, ideas, and discoveries within a community of specialized scholars. It is in these journals that the cutting edge discoveries, ideas, and developments of every field are first published. Many of these journals are peer-reviewed, meaning that every article that is deemed a possible candidate for publication is read by two or three recognized scholars in the field, who critique not only the writing but the importance and usefulness of the information presented.
Typically, these journals are only open to people doing original work in the field. Within each discipline there is a hierarchy of journals, with the top journals only publishing the most important and exciting work, and/or only publishing work produced by recognized scholars and/ or laboratories, and the smaller journals typically publishing good but less groundbreaking work. Guidelines for publication in these journals are listed in one issue a year, or can be obtained online; a potential writer for one of these publications is recommended to be familiar and comfortable with the typical level of discourse, tone, style, subjects, etc.
The best place to find out more is to investigate individual disciplines are Writing Across the Curriculum sites.
Typically, these journals are only open to people doing original work in the field. Within each discipline there is a hierarchy of journals, with the top journals only publishing the most important and exciting work, and/or only publishing work produced by recognized scholars and/ or laboratories, and the smaller journals typically publishing good but less groundbreaking work. Guidelines for publication in these journals are listed in one issue a year, or can be obtained online; a potential writer for one of these publications is recommended to be familiar and comfortable with the typical level of discourse, tone, style, subjects, etc.
The best place to find out more is to investigate individual disciplines are Writing Across the Curriculum sites.
Webzines
Webzines, also known as e-zines, eBooks, or online magazines, come in as many forms and genres as print magazines. There are online magazines devoted to news and politics, to literary work, to science fiction and fantasy writing, to e-publishing, and to nearly every sort of specialized subject you can imagine. The same guidelines that apply to submitting to print magazines also apply at these magazines, except that postal charges and SASEs are not involved.
Books
Most writer's guidelines recommend getting an agent if you want to publish a book-length work. There are exceptions to this rule: if you are submitting to a small press, if you have a book with a very specialized audience, or, possibly, if your book is likely to sell well; even under these circumstances an agent is recommended. Approach an agent the same way you would a publisher, with respect for his or her limited time and attention. There are lots of excellent resources on how to go about getting an agent; a good place to start
General Guidelines for Submission
Every publication venue has its own slightly different rules and ways of handling submissions, but the following principles hold true for every venue:
After Publication
Once you've published a book, your writing career may change, and not always for the better. Before publication, your direction as a writer is open and unbiased by other people's expectations of you. After publication, especially if your first book was successful, you'll have to fight to hold onto this freedom and openness. First of all, agents and editors will expect you to write a book that is not only as successful as the first, but is sort of a sequel to it. If you wrote your first novel about a cheeky young woman who climbs mountains, you may have trouble publishing your second novel about a dour old woman who collects stamps. If your first book was how to cook cheaply for a family of ten, you might have trouble publishing a cookbook on gourmet cooking from Italy. In other words, you get typecast.