A case study analysis requires you to investigate a business problem, examine the alternative solutions, and propose the most effective solution using supporting evidence.
Preparing the Case
Before you begin writing, follow these guidelines to help you prepare and understand the case study:
Read and Examine the Case Thoroughly
Take notes, highlight relevant facts, underline key problems.
Focus Your Analysis
Identify two to five key problems.
Why do they exist?
How do they impact the organization?
Who is responsible for them?
Uncover Possible Solutions/Changes Needed
Review course readings, discussions, outside research, your experience.
Select the Best Solution
Consider strong supporting evidence, pros, and cons. Is this solution realistic?
Drafting the Case
Once you have gathered the necessary information, a draft of your analysis should include these general sections, but these may differ depending on your assignment directions or your specific case study:
Introduction
Identify the key problems and issues in the case study.
Formulate and include a thesis statement, summarizing the outcome of your analysis in 1–2 sentences.
Background
Set the scene: background information, relevant facts, and the most important issues.
Demonstrate that you have researched the problems in this case study.
Evaluation of the Case
Outline the various pieces of the case study that you are focusing on.
Evaluate these pieces by discussing what is working and what is not working.
State why these parts of the case study are or are not working well.
Proposed Solution/Changes
Provide specific and realistic solution(s) or changes needed.
Explain why this solution was chosen.
Support this solution with solid evidence, such as:
Concepts from class (text readings, discussions, lectures)
Outside research
Personal experience (anecdotes)
Recommendations
Determine and discuss specific strategies for accomplishing the proposed solution.
If applicable, recommend further action to resolve some of the issues.
What should be done and who should do it?
Finalizing the Case
After you have composed the first draft of your case study analysis, read through it to check for any gaps or inconsistencies in content or structure:
Is your thesis statement clear and direct?
Have you provided solid evidence?
Is any component from the analysis missing?
When you make the necessary revisions, proofread and edit your analysis before submitting the final draft.
GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A CASE STUDY ANALYSIS
A case study analysis requires you to investigate a business problem, examine the alternative solutions, and propose the most effective solution using supporting evidence. To see an annotated sample of a Case Study Analysis, click here.
Preparing the Case
Before you begin writing, follow these guidelines to help you prepare and understand the case study:
Read and examine the case thoroughly
Take notes, highlight relevant facts, underline key problems.
Focus your analysis
Identify two to five key problems
Why do they exist?
How do they impact the organization?
Who is responsible for them?
Uncover possible solutions
Review course readings, discussions, outside research, your experience.
Select the best solution
Consider strong supporting evidence, pros, and cons: is this solution realistic?
Drafting the Case
Once you have gathered the necessary information, a draft of your analysis should include these sections:
Introduction
Identify the key problems and issues in the case study.
Formulate and include a thesis statement, summarizing the outcome of your analysis in 1–2 sentences.
Background
Set the scene: background information, relevant facts, and the most important issues.
Demonstrate that you have researched the problems in this case study.
Alternatives
Outline possible alternatives (not necessarily all of them)
Explain why alternatives were rejected
Constraints/reasons
Why are alternatives not possible at this time?
Proposed Solution
Provide one specific and realistic solution
Explain why this solution was chosen
Support this solution with solid evidence
Concepts from class (text readings, discussions, lectures)
Outside research
Personal experience (anecdotes)
Recommendations
Determine and discuss specific strategies for accomplishing the proposed solution.
If applicable, recommend further action to resolve some of the issues
What should be done and who should do it?
Finalizing the Case
After you have composed the first draft of your case study analysis, read through it to check for any gaps or inconsistencies in content or structure: Is your thesis statement clear and direct? Have you provided solid evidence? Is any component from the analysis missing?
When you make the necessary revisions, proofread and edit your analysis before submitting the final draft. (Refer to Proofreading and Editing Strategies to guide you at this stage).
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FIRST AND THIRD PERSON
Personal Writing, such as for a reflective essay, or a "personal response" discussion posting, can be written in the first person (using "I" and "me"), and may use personal opinions and anecdotes as evidence for the point you are trying to make. All other Ashford papers (Exposition, Persuasion, and Research Papers) should generally be written in third person, and should use only credible academic sources to support your argument.
EXAMPLES OF FIRST AND THIRD PERSON WRITING
First person example (only acceptable for personal writing)
I think Shakespeare's play Hamlet is about the relationships between family members. I really liked the play, and in some ways the characters reminded me of my own family.
Third person correction (appropriate for all other academic writing)
Shakespeare's play Hamlet deals with the relationships between family members. In Examining Hamlet, Arnold Latimer describes these relationships as "conflicted" (2005, pg. 327).
Explanation: In the second example, the pronouns "I" and "me" have been omitted, and academic sources are used as evidence.
First person example (only acceptable for personal writing)
The theory of learning that I relate to the most is Bandura's social cognitive theory. This is the theory that you can learn to do things by observing others. I know this theory is true because I learned how to fix cars by watching my dad over many years.
Third person correction (appropriate for all other academic writing)
Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory is based on the idea that people can acquire knowledge by observing others through social interaction. This theory was demonstrated through Bandura's "Bobo Doll" experiment (1961).
Explanation: In the second examples, the focus is on objective facts, rather than on what "I" think, and academic sources are used as evidence.
Case studies are in-depth studies of a phenomenon, like a person, group, or situation. The phenomenon is studied in detail, cases are analyzed and solutions or interpretations are presented. It can provide a deeper understanding of a complex topic or assist a person in gaining experience about a certain historical situation. Although case studies are used across a wide variety of disciplines, they are more frequently found in the social sciences.
Case studies are a type of qualitative research. This method does not involve statistical hypothesis testing. The method has been criticized as being unreliable, too general, and open to bias. To avoid some of these problems, studies should be carefully planned and implemented. The University of Texas suggest the following six steps for case studies to ensure the best possible outcome:
Determine the research question and carefully define it. The research question for case studies generally starts with a “How” or “Why.”
Choose the cases and state how data is to be gathered and which techniques for analysis you’ll be using. Well designed studies consider all available options for cases and for ways to analyze those cases. Multiple sources and data analysis methods are recommended.
Prepare to collect the data. Consider how you will deal with large sets of data in order to avoid becoming overwhelmed once the study is underway. You should formulate good questions and anticipate how you will interpret answers. Multiple collection methods will strengthen the study. See: Data Collection Methods.
Collect the data in the field (or, less frequently, in the lab). Collect and organize the data, keep good field notes and maintain an organized database.
Analyze the data.
Prepare your report.
Text books are including more real-life studies to veer away from the “clean” data sets that are found in traditional books. These data sets do little to prepare students for applying statistical concepts to their ultimate careers in industry or the social sciences. You can find many examples of several real-life statistics case studies on the UCLAwebsite.
Types of Case Studies
There are several different types of case studies, as well as several types of subjects of case studies. We will investigate each type in this article.
Different Types of Case Studies
There are several types of case studies, each differing from each other based on the hypothesis and/or thesis to be proved. It is also possible for types of case studies to overlap each other.
Each of the following types of cases can be used in any field or discipline. Whether it is psychology, business or the arts, the type of case study can apply to any field.
Explanatory
The explanatory case study focuses on an explanation for a question or a phenomenon. Basically put, an explanatory case study is 1 + 1 = 2. The results are not up for interpretation.
A case study with a person or group would not be explanatory, as with humans, there will always be variables. There are always small variances that cannot be explained.
However, event case studies can be explanatory. For example, let's say a certain automobile has a series of crashes that are caused by faulty brakes. All of the crashes are a result of brakes not being effective on icy roads.
Think!
What kind of case study is explanatory?
Think of an example of an explanatory case study that could be done today
When developing the case study, the researcher will explain the crash, and the detailed causes of the brake failure. They will investigate what actions caused the brakes to fail, and what actions could have been taken to prevent the failure.
Other car companies could then use this case study to better understand what makes brakes fail. When designing safer products, looking to past failures is an excellent way to ensure similar mistakes are not made.
The same can be said for other safety issues in cars. There was a time when cars did not have seatbelts. The process to get seatbelts required in all cars started with a case study! The same can be said about airbags and collapsible steering columns. They all began with a case study that lead to larger research, and eventual change.
Exploratory
An exploratory case study is usually the precursor to a formal, large-scale research project. The case study's goal is to prove that further investigation is necessary.
For example, an exploratory case study could be done on veterans coming home from active combat. Researchers are aware that these vets have PTSD, and are aware that the actions of war are what cause PTSD. Beyond that, they do not know if certain wartime activities are more likely to contribute to PTSD than others.
For an exploratory case study, the researcher could develop a study that certain war events are more likely to cause PTSD. Once that is demonstrated, a large-scale research project could be done to determine which events are most likely to cause PTSD.
Exploratory case studies are very popular in psychology and the social sciences. Psychologists are always looking for better ways to treat their patients, and exploratory studies allow them to research new ideas or theories.
Multiple-Case Studies or Collective Studies
Multiple case or collective studies use information from different studies to formulate the case for a new study. The use of past studies allows additional information without needing to spend more time and money on additional studies.
Using the PTSD issue again is an excellent example of a collective study. When studying what contributes most to wartime PTSD, a researcher could use case studies from different war. For instance, studies about PTSD in WW2 vets, Persian Gulf War vets, and Vietnam vets could provide an excellent sampling of which wartime activities are most likely to cause PTSD.
Think!
If a multiple case study on vets was done with vets from the Vietnam War, the Persian Gulf War, and the Iraq War, and it was determined the vets from Vietnam had much less PTSD, what could be inferred?
Furthermore, this type of study could uncover differences as well. For example, a researcher might find that veterans who serve in the Middle East are more likely to suffer a certain type of ailment. Or perhaps, that veterans who served with large platoons were more likely to suffer from PTSD than veterans who served in smaller platoons.
Intrinsic
An intrinsic case study is the study of a case wherein the subject itself is the primary interest. The "Genie" case is an example of this. The study wasn't so much about psychology, but about Genie herself, and how her experiences shaped who she was.
Genie is the topic. Genie is what the researchers are interested in, and what their readers will be most interested in. When the researchers started the study, they didn't know what they would find.
They asked the question…"If a child is never introduced to language during the crucial first years of life, can they acquire language skills when they are older?" When they met Genie, they didn't know the answer to that question.
Instrumental
An instrumental case study uses a case to gain insights into a phenomenon. For example, a researcher interested in child obesity rates might set up a study with middle school students and an exercise program. In this case, the children and the exercise program are not the focus. The focus is learning the relationship between children and exercise, and why certain children become obese.
Think!
What is an example of an instrumental case study?
Focus on the results, not the topic!
Types of Subjects of Case Studies
There are generally five different types of case studies, and the subjects that they address. Every case study, whether explanatory or exploratory, or intrinsic or instrumental, fits into one of these five groups. These are:
Want to learn more? Take an online course in How to Write Case Studies.
Person – This type of study focuses on one particular individual. This case study would use several types of research to determine an outcome.
The best example of a person case is the "Genie" case study. Again, "Genie" was a 13-year-old girl who was discovered by social services in Los Angeles in 1970. Her father believed her to be mentally retarded, and therefore locked her in a room without any kind of stimulation. She was never nourished or cared for in any way. If she made a noise, she was beaten.
When "Genie" was discovered, child development specialists wanted to learn as much as possible about how her experiences contributed to her physical, emotional and mental health. They also wanted to learn about her language skills. She had no form of language when she was found, she only grunted. The study would determine whether or not she could learn language skills at the age of 13.
Since Genie was placed in a children's hospital, many different clinicians could observe her. In addition, researchers were able to interview the few people who did have contact with Genie and would be able to gather whatever background information was available.
This case study is still one of the most valuable in all of child development. Since it would be impossible to conduct this type of research with a healthy child, the information garnered from Genie's case is invaluable.
Group – This type of study focuses on a group of people. This could be a family, a group or friends, or even coworkers.
An example of this type of case study would be the uncontacted tribes of Indians in the Peruvian and Brazilian rainforest. These tribes have never had any modern contact. Therefore, there is a great interest to study them.
Scientists would be interested in just about every facet of their lives. How do they cook, how do they make clothing, how do they make tools and weapons. Also, doing psychological and emotional research would be interesting. However, because so few of these tribes exist, no one is contacting them for research. For now, all research is done observationally.
Think!
If a researcher wanted to study uncontacted Indian tribes, and could only observe the subjects, what type of observations should be made?
Location – This type of study focuses on a place, and how and why people use the place.
For example, many case studies have been done about Siberia, and the people who live there. Siberia is a cold and barren place in northern Russia, and it is considered the most difficult place to live in the world. Studying the location, and it's weather and people can help other people learn how to live with extreme weather and isolation.
Location studies can also be done on locations that are facing some kind of change. For example, a case study could be done on Alaska, and whether the state is seeing the effects of climate change.
Another type of study that could be done in Alaska is how the environment changes as population increases. Geographers and those interested in population growth often do these case studies.
Organization/Company – This type of study focuses on a business or an organization. This could include the people who work for the company, or an event that occurred at the organization.
An excellent example of this type of case study is Enron. Enron was one of the largest energy company's in the United States, when it was discovered that executives at the company were fraudulently reporting the company's accounting numbers.
Once the fraud was uncovered, investigators discovered willful and systematic corruption that caused the collapse of Enron, as well as their financial auditors, Arthur Andersen. The fraud was so severe that the top executives of the company were sentenced to prison.
This type of case study is used by accountants, auditors, financiers, as well as business students, in order to learn how such a large company could get away with committing such a serious case of corporate fraud for as long as they did. It can also be looked at from a psychological standpoint, as it is interesting to learn why the executives took the large risks that they took.
Most company or organization case studies are done for business purposes. In fact, in many business schools, such as Harvard Business School, students learn by the case method, which is the study of case studies. They learn how to solve business problems by studying the cases of businesses that either survived the same problem, or one that didn't survive the problem.
Event – This type of study focuses on an event, whether cultural or societal, and how it affects those that are affected by it. An example would be the Tylenol cyanide scandal. This event affected Johnson & Johnson, the parent company, as well as the public at large.
The case study would detail the events of the scandal, and more specifically, what management at Johnson & Johnson did to correct the problem. To this day, when a company experiences a large public relations scandal, they look to the Tylenol case study to learn how they managed to survive the scandal.
A very popular topic for case studies was the events of September 11th. There were studies in almost all of the different types of research studies.
Obviously the event itself was a very popular topic. It was important to learn what lead up to the event, and how best to proven it from happening in the future. These studies are not only important to the U.S. government, but to other governments hoping to prevent terrorism in their countries.
There were also several case studies about the survivors of the terrorist attacks. These studies were invaluable because it is impossible to recreate the events for research purposes. Studies were done focusing on their physical health, mental health and emotional health. In fact, studies are still being done as time passes.
Planning A Case Study
You have decided that you want to research and write a case study. Now what? In this section you will learn how to plan and organize a research case study.
Selecting a Case
The first step is to choose the subject, topic or case. You will want to choose a topic that is interesting to you, and a topic that would be of interest to your potential audience. Ideally you have a passion for the topic, as then you will better understand the issues surrounding the topic, and which resources would be most successful in the study.
You also must choose a topic that would be of interest to a large number of people. You want your case study to reach as large an audience as possible, and a topic that is of interest to just a few people will not have a very large reach. One of the goals of a case study is to reach as many people as possible.
Who is your audience?
Are you trying to reach the layperson? Or are you trying to reach other professionals in your field? Your audience will help determine the topic you choose.
Think!
If you are writing a case study that is looking for ways to lower rates of child obesity, who is your audience?
If you are writing a psychology case study, you must consider whether your audience will have the intellectual skills to understand the information in the case. Does your audience know the vocabulary of psychology? Do they understand the processes and structure of the field?
You want your audience to have as much general knowledge as possible. When it comes time to write the case study, you may have to spend some time defining and explaining terms that might be unfamiliar to the audience.
Lastly, when selecting a topic you do not want to choose a topic that is very old. Current topics are always the most interesting, so if your topic is more than 5-10 years old, you might want to consider a newer topic. If you choose an older topic, you must ask yourself what new and valuable information do you bring to the older topic, and is it relevant and necessary.
Determine Research Goals
What type of case study do you plan to do?
An illustrative case study will examine an unfamiliar case in order to help others understand it. For example, a case study of a veteran with PTSD can be used to help new therapists better understand what veterans experience.
An exploratory case study is a preliminary project that will be the precursor to a larger study in the future. For example, a case study could be done challenging the efficacy of different therapy methods for vets with PTSD. Once the study is complete, a larger study could be done on whichever method was most effective.
A critical instance case focuses on a unique case that doesn't have a predetermined purpose. For example, a vet with an incredibly severe case of PTSD could be studied to find ways to treat his condition.
Ethics
Ethics are a large part of the case study process, and most case studies require ethical approval. This approval usually comes from the institution or department the researcher works for. Many universities and research institutions have ethics oversight departments. They will require you to prove that you will not harm your study subjects or participants.
This should be done even if the case study is on an older subject. Sometimes publishing new studies can cause harm to the original participants. Regardless of your personal feelings, it is essential the project is brought to the ethics department to ensure your project can proceed safely.
Developing the Case Study
Once you have your topic, it is time to start planning and developing the study. This process will be different depending on what type of case study you are planning to do. For thissection, we will assume a psychological case study, as most case studies are based on the psychological model.
Once you have the topic, it is time to ask yourself some questions. What question do you want to answer with the study?
For example, a researcher is considering a case study about PTSD in veterans. The topic is PTSD in veterans. What questions could be asked?
Do veterans from Middle Eastern wars suffer greater instances of PTSD?
Do younger soldiers have higher instances of PTSD?
Does the length of the tour effect the severity of PTSD?
Each of these questions is a viable question, and finding the answers, or the possible answers, would be helpful for both psychologists and veterans who suffer from PTSD.
Research Notebook
ld be a list of questions the researcher must be able to answer. Such as:
1. What is the background of the case study? Who requested the study to be done and why? What industry is the study in, and where will the study take place?
2. What is the problem that needs a solution? What is the situation, and what are the risks?
3. What questions are required to analyze the problem? What questions might the reader of the study have? What questions might colleagues have?
4. What tools are required to analyze the problem? Is data analysis necessary?
5. What is your current knowledge about the problem or situation? How much background information do you need to procure? How will you obtain this background info?
6. What other information do you need to know to successfully complete the study?
7. How do you plan to present the report? Will it be a simple written report, or will you add PowerPoint presentations or images or videos? When is the report due? Are you giving yourself enough time to complete the project?
The research notebook is the heart of the study. Other organizational methods can be utilized, such as Microsoft Excel, but a physical notebook should always be kept as well.
Planning the Research
The most important parts of the case study are:
1. The case study's questions
2. The study's propositions
3. How information and data will be analyzed
4. The logic behind the propositions
5. How the findings will be interpreted
The study's questions should be either a "how" or "why" question, and their definition is the researchers first job. These questions will help determine the study's goals.
Not every case study has a proposition. If you are doing an exploratory study, you will not have propositions. Instead, you will have a stated purpose, which will determine whether your study is successful, or not.
How the information will be analyzed will depend on what the topic is. This would vary depending on whether it was a person, group, or organization.
When setting up your research, you will want to follow case study protocol. The protocol should have the following sections:
1. An overview of the case study, including the objectives, topic and issues.
2. Procedures for gathering information and conducting interviews.
3. Questions that will be asked during interviews and data collection.
4. A guide for the final case study report.
When deciding upon which research methods to use, these are the most important:
1. Documents and archival records
2. Interviews
3. Direct observations
4. Indirect observations, or observations of subjects
5. Physical artifacts and tools
Documents could include almost anything, including letters, memos, newspaper articles, Internet articles, other case studies, or any other document germane to the study.
Archival records can include military and service records, company or business records, survey data or census information.
Research Strategy
Before beginning the study you want a clear research strategy. Your best chance at success will be if you use an outline that describes how you will gather your data and how you will answer your research questions.
The researcher should create a list with four or five bullet points that need answers. Consider the approaches for these questions, and the different perspectives you could take.
The researcher should then choose at least two data sources (ideally more). These sources could include interviews, Internet research, and fieldwork or report collection. The more data sources used, the better the quality of the final data.
The researcher then must formulate interview questions that will result in detailed and in-depth answers that will help meet the research goals. A list of 15-20 questions is a good start, but these can and will change as the process flows.
Planning Interviews
The interview process is one of the most important parts of the case study process. But before this can begin, it is imperative the researcher gets informed consent from the subjects.
The process of informed consent means the subject understands their role in the study, and that their story will be used in the case study. You will want to have each subject complete a consent form.
The researcher must explain what the study is trying to achieve, and how their contribution will help the study. If necessary, assure the subject that their information will remain private if requested, and they do not need to use their real name if they are not comfortable with that. Pseudonyms are commonly used in case studies.
Key Terms!
Informed Consent
The process by which permission is granted before beginning medical or psychological research
Pseudonym
A fictitious name used to hide ones identity
It is important the researcher is clear regarding the expectations of the study participation. For example, are they comfortable on camera? Do they mind if their photo is used in the final written study.
Interviews
Interviews are one of the most important sources of information for case studies. There are several types of interviews. They are:
Open-ended – This type of interview has the interviewer and subject talking to each other about the subject. The interviewer asks questions, and the subject answers them. But the subject can elaborate and add information whenever they see fit.
A researcher might meet with a subject multiple times, and use the open-ended method. This can be a great way to gain insight into events. However, the researcher mustn't rely solely on the information from the one subject, and be sure to have multiple sources.
Focused – This type of interview is used when the subject is interviewed for a short period of time, and answers a set of questions. This type of interview could be used to verify information learned in an open-ended interview with another subject. Focused interviews are normally done to confirm information, not to gain new information.
Structured – Structured interviews are similar to surveys. These are usually used when collecting data for large groups, like neighborhoods. The questions are decided before hand, and the expected answers are usually simple.
When conducting interviews, the answers are obviously important. But just as important are the observations that can be made. This is one of the reasons in-person interviews are preferable over phone interviews, or Internet or mail surveys.
Ideally, when conducing in-person interviews, more than one researcher should be present. This allows one researcher to focus on observing while the other is interviewing. This is particularly important when interviewing large groups of people.
The researcher must understand going into the case study that the information gained from the interviews might not be valuable. It is possible that once the interviews are completed, the information gained is not relevant.
How to Write a Case Study: A Breakdown of Requirements
It can take months to develop a case study. First, a topic must be chosen. Then the researcher must state his hypothesis, and make certain it lines up with the chosen topic. Then all the research must be completed. The case study can require both quantitative and qualitative research, as well as interviews with subjects. Once that is all done, it is time to write the case study.
Not all case studies are written the same. Depending on the size and topic of the study, it could be hundreds of pages long. Regardless of the size, the case study should have four main sections. These sections are:
1. Introduction
2. Background
3. Presentation of Findings
4. Conclusion
The Introduction
The introduction should set the stage for the case study, and state the thesis for the report. The intro must clearly articulate what the study's intention is, as well as how you plan on explaining and answering the thesis.
Again, remember that a case study is not a formal scientific research report that will only be read by scientists. The case study must be able to be read and understood by the layperson, and should read almost as a story, with a clear narrative.
As the reader reads the introduction, they should fully understand what the study is about, and why it is important. They should have a strong foundation for the background they will learn about in the next section.
The introduction should not be long. You must be able to introduce your topic in one or two paragraphs. Ideally, the introduction is one paragraph of about 3-5 sentences.
The Background
The background should detail what information brought the researcher to pose his hypothesis. It should clearly explain the subject or subjects, as well as their background information. And lastly, the background must give the reader a full understanding of the issue at hand, and what process will be taken with the study. Photos and videos are always helpful when applicable.
When writing the background, the researcher must explain the research methods used, and why. The type of research used will be dependent on the type of case study. The reader should have a clear idea why a particular type of research is good for the field and type of case study.
For example, a case study that is trying to determine what causes PTSD in veterans will heavily use interviews as a research method. Directly interviewing subjects garners invaluable research for the researcher. If possible, reference studies that prove this.
Again, as with the introduction, you do not want to write an extremely long background. It is important you provide the right amount of information, as you do not want to bore your readers with too much information, and you don't want them under-informed.
Think!
How much background information should a case study provide?
What would happen if the case study had too much background info?
What would happen if the case study had too little background info?
The Presentation of Findings
While a case study might use scientific facts and information, a case study should not read as a scientific research journal or report. It should be easy to read and understand, and should follow the narrative determined in the first step.
The presentation of findings should clearly explain how the topic was researched, and summarize what the results are. Data should be summarized as simply as possible so that it is understandable by people without a scientific background. The researcher should describe what was learned from the interviews, and how the results answered the questions asked in the introduction.
When writing up the report, it is important to set the scene. The writer must clearly lay out all relevant facts and detail the most important points. While this section may be lengthy, you do not want to overwhelm the reader with too much information.
The Conclusion
The final section of the study is the conclusion. The purpose of the study isn't necessarily to solve the problem, only to offer possible solutions. The final summary should be an end to the story.
Remember, the case study is about asking and answering questions. The conclusion should answer the question posed by the researcher, but also leave the reader with questions of his own. The researcher wants the reader to think about the questions posed in the study, and be free to come to their own conclusions as well.
When reading the conclusion, the reader should be able to have the following takeaways:
Was there a solution provided? If so, why was it chosen?
Was the solution supported with solid evidence?
Did the personal experiences and interviews support the solution?
The conclusion should also make any recommendations that are necessary. What needs to be done, and you exactly should do it? In the case of the vets with PTSD, once a cause is determined, who is responsible for making sure the needs of the veterans are met?
English Writing Standards For Case Studies
When writing the case study, it is important to follow standard academic and scientific rules when it comes to spelling and grammar.
Spelling and Grammar
It should go without saying that a thorough spell check should be done. Remember, many case studies will require words or terms that are not in standard online dictionaries, so it is imperative the correct spelling is used. If possible, the first draft of the case study should be reviewed and edited by someone other than yourself.
Case studies are normally written in the past tense, as the report is detailing an event or topic that has since passed. The report should be written using a very logical and clear tone. All case studies are scientific in nature and should be written as such.
Want to learn more? Take an online course in How to Write Case Studies.
The First Draft
You do not sit down and write the case study in one day. It is a long and detailed process, and it must be done carefully and with precision. When you sit down to first start writing, you will want to write in plain English, and detail the what, when and how.
When writing the first draft, note any relevant assumptions. Don't immediately jump to any conclusions; just take notes of any initial thoughts. You are not looking for solutions yet. In the first draft use direct quotes when needed, and be sure to identify and qualify all information used.
If there are any issues you do not understand, the first draft is where it should be identified. Make a note so you return to review later. Using a spreadsheet program like Excel or Google Sheets is very valuable during this stage of the writing process, and can help keep you and your information and data organized.
The Second Draft
To prepare the second draft, you will want to assemble everything you have written thus far. You want to reduce the amount of writing so that the writing is tightly written and cogent. Remember, you want your case study to be interesting to read.
When possible, you should consider adding images, tables, maps, or diagrams to the text to make it more interesting for the reader. If you use any of these, make sure you have permission to use them. You cannot take an image from the Internet and use it without permission.
Once you have completed the second draft, you are not finished! It is imperative you have someone review your work. This could be a coworker, friend, or trusted colleague. You want someone who will give you an honest review of your work, and is willing to give you feedback, whether positive or negative.
Remember, you cannot proofread enough! You do not want to risk all of your hard work and research, and end up with a final case study that has spelling or grammatical errors. One typo could greatly hurt your project and damage your reputation in your field.
All case studies should follow LIT – Logical – Inclusive – Thorough.
Logical
The case study obviously must be logical. There can be no guessing or estimating. This means that the report must state what was observed, but cannot include any opinion or assumptions that might come from such an observation.
For example, if a veteran subject arrives at an interview holding an empty liquor bottle and is slurring his words, that observation must be made. However, the researcher cannot make the inference that the subject was intoxicated. The report can only include the facts.
With the Genie case, researchers witnessed Genie hitting herself and practicing self-harm. It could be assumed that she did this when she was angry. However, this wasn't always the case. She would also hit herself when she was afraid, bored or apprehensive. It is essential that researchers not guess or infer.
Inclusive
In order for a report to be inclusive, it must contain ALL data and findings. The researcher cannot pick and choose which data or findings to use in the report.
Using the example above, if a veteran subject arrives for an interview holding an empty liquor bottle and is slurring his words; any and all additional information that can be garnered should be recorded. For instance, what the subject was wearing, what was his demeanor, was he able to speak and communicate, etc.
When observing a man who might be drunk, it can be easy to make assumptions. However, the researcher cannot allow personal biases or beliefs to sway the findings. Any and all relevant facts must be included, regardless of size or perceived importance. Remember, small details might not seem relevant at the time of the interview. But once it is time to catalog the findings, small details might become important.
Thorough
The last tip is to be thorough. It is important to delve into every observation. The researcher shouldn't just write down what they see and move on. It is essential to detail as much as possible.
For example, when interviewing veteran subjects, there interview responses are not the only information that should be garnered from the interview. The interviewer should use all senses when detailing their subject.
How does the subject appear? Is he clean? How is he dressed?
How does his voice sound? Is he speaking clearly and making cohesive thoughts? Does his voice sound raspy? Does he speak with a whisper, or does he speak too loudly?
Does the subject smell? Is he wearing cologne, or can you smell that he hasn't bathed or washed his clothes? What do his clothes look like? Is he well dressed, or does he wear casual clothes?
What is the background of the subject? What are his current living arrangements? Does he have supportive family and friends? Is he a loner who doesn't have a solid support system? Is the subject working? If so, is he happy with the job? If he is not employed, why is that? What makes the subject unemployable?
The more information the researcher can get, the better the understanding of the subject, and the overall case study topic. It is important the researcher act as a professional, and not an amateur. When conducting the study, it is better to err on the side of too much research. But when writing the study, you want to be careful not to overdo it.
Case Studies in Marketing
We have already determined that case studies are very valuable in the business world. This is particularly true in the marketing field, which includes advertising and public relations. While case studies are almost all the same, marketing case studies are usually more dependent on interviews and observations.
Well-Known Marketing Case Studies
DeBeers
DeBeers is a diamond company headquartered in Luxembourg, and based in South Africa. It is well known for its logo, "A diamond is forever", which has been voted the best advertising slogan of the 20th century.
Many studies have been done about DeBeers, but none are as well known as their marketing case study, and how they positioned themselves to be the most successful and well-known diamond company in the world.
DeBeers developed the idea for a diamond engagement ring. They also invented the "eternity band", which is a ring that has diamonds going all around it, signifying that long is forever.
They also invented the three-stone ring, signifying the past, present and future. De Beers was the first company to attribute their products, diamonds to the idea of love and romance. They originated the idea that an engagement ring should cost two-months salary.
The two-month salary standard is particularly unique, in that it is totally subjective. A ring should mean the same whether the man makes $25,000 a year or $250,000. And yet, the standard sticks due to DeBeers incredible marketing skills.
The De Beers case study is one of the most famous studies when it comes to both advertising and marketing, and is used worldwide as the ultimate example of a successful ongoing marketing campaign.
Planning the Market Research
The most important parts of the marketing case study are:
1. The case study's questions
2. The study's propositions
3. How information and data will be analyzed
4. The logic behind what is being proposed
5. How the findings will be interpreted
The study's questions should be either "how" or "why" questions, and their definitions are the researchers first job. These questions will help determine the study's goals.
Not every case study has a proposition. If you are doing an exploratory study, you will not have propositions. Instead, you will have a stated purpose, which will determine whether your study is successful, or not.
How the information will be analyzed will depend on what the topic is. This would vary depending on whether it was a person, group, or organization. Event and place studies are done differently.
When setting up your research, you will want to follow case study protocol. The protocol should have the following sections:
1. An overview of the case study, including the objectives, topic and issues.
2. Procedures for gathering information and conducting interviews.
3. Questions that will be asked during interviews and data collection.
4. A guide for the final case study report.
When deciding upon which research methods to use, these are the most important:
1. Documents and archival records
2. Interviews
3. Direct observations (and indirect when possible)
4. Indirect observations, or observations of subjects
5. Physical artifacts and tools
Documents could include almost anything, including letters, memos, newspaper articles, Internet articles, other case studies, or any other document germane to the study.
Developing the Case Study
Developing a marketing case study follows the same steps and procedures as most case studies. It begins with asking a question, "what is missing?"
1. What is the background of the case study? Who requested the study to be done and why? What industry is the study in, and where will the study take place? What marketing needs are you trying to address?
2. What is the problem that needs a solution? What is the situation, and what are the risks? What are you trying to prove?
3. What questions are required to analyze the problem? What questions might the reader of the study have?
4. What tools are required to analyze the problem? Is data analysis necessary? Can the study use just interviews and observations, or will it require additional information?
5. What is your current knowledge about the problem or situation? How much background information do you need to procure? How will you obtain this background info?
6. What other information do you need to know to successfully complete the study?
7. How do you plan to present the report? Will it be a simple written report, or will you add PowerPoint presentations or images or videos? When is the report due? Are you giving yourself enough time to complete the project?
Formulating the Marketing Case Study
1. What is the marketing problem? Most case studies begin with a problem that management or the marketing department is facing. You must fully understand the problem and what caused it. That is when you can start searching for a solution.
However, marketing case studies can be difficult to research. You must turn a marketing problem into a research problem. For example, if the problem is that sales are not growing, you must translate that to a research problem.
What could potential research problems be?
Research problems could be poor performance or poor expectations. You want a research problem because then you can find an answer. Management problems focus on actions, such as whether to advertise more, or change advertising strategies. Research problems focus on finding out how to solve the management problem.
Method of Inquiry
As with the research for most case studies, the scientific method is standard. It allows you to use existing knowledge as a starting point. The scientific method has the following steps:
1. Ask a question – formulate a problem
2. Do background research
3. Formulate a problem
4. Develop/construct a hypothesis
5. Make predictions based on the hypothesis
6. Do experiments to test the hypothesis
7. Conduct the test/experiment
8. Analyze and communicate the results
The above terminology is very similar to the research process. The main difference is that the scientific method is objective and the research process is subjective. Quantitative research is based on impartial analysis, and qualitative research is based on personal judgment.
Research Method
After selecting the method of inquiry, it is time to decide on a research method. There are two main research methodologies, experimental research and non-experimental research.
Experimental research allows you to control the variables and to manipulate any of the variables that influence the study.
Non-experimental research allows you to observe, but not intervene. You just observe and then report your findings.
Research Design
The design is the plan for how you will conduct the study, and how you will collect the data. The design is the scientific method you will use to obtain the information you are seeking.
Data Collection
There are many different ways to collect data, with the two most important being interviews and observation.
Interviews are when you ask people questions and get a response. These interviews can be done face-to-face, by telephone, the mail, email, or even the Internet. This category of research techniques is survey research. Interviews can be done in both experimental and non-experimental research.
Observation is watching a person or company's behavior. For example, by observing a persons buying behavior, you could predict how that person will make purchases in the future.
When using interviews or observation, it is required that you record your results. How you record the data will depend on which method you use. As with all case studies, using a research notebook is key, and will be the heart of the study.
Sample Design
When developing your case study, you won't usually examine an entire population; those are done by larger research projects. Your study will use a sample, which is a small representation of the population. When designing your sample, be prepared to answer the following questions:
1. From which type of population should the sample be chosen?
2. What is the process for the selection of the sample?
3. What will be the size of the sample?
There are two ways to select a sample from the general population; probability and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling uses random sampling of everyone in the population. Non-probability sampling uses the judgment of the researcher.
The last step of designing your sample is to determine the sample size. This can depend on cost and accuracy. Larger samples are better and more accurate, but they can also be costly.
Analysis of the Data
In order to use the data, it first must be analyzed. How you analyze the data should be decided upon as early in the process as possible, and will vary depending on the type of info you are collecting, and the form of measurement being used. As stated repeatedly, make sure you keep track of everything in the research notebook.
The Marketing Case Study Report
The final stage of the process is the marketing case study. The final study will include all of the information, as well as detail the process. It will also describe the results, conclusions, and any recommendations. It must have all the information needed so that the reader can understand the case study.
As with all case studies, it must be easy to read. You don't want to use info that is too technical; otherwise you could potentially overwhelm your reader. So make sure it is written in plain English, with scientific and technical terms kept to a minimum.
Using Your Case Study
Once you have your finished case study, you have many opportunities to get that case study in front of potential customers. Here is a list of the ways you can use your case study to help your company's marketing efforts.
1. Have a page on your website that is dedicated to case studies. The page should have a catchy name and list all of the company's case studies, beginning with the most recent. Next to each case study list its goals and results.
2. Put the case study on your home page. This will put your study front and center, and will be immediately visible when customers visit your web page. Make sure the link isn't hidden in an area rarely visited by guests. You can highlight the case study for a few weeks or months, or until you feel your study has received enough looks.
3. Write a blog post about your case study. Obviously you must have a blog for this to be successful. This is a great way to give your case study exposure, and it allows you to write the post directly addressing your audience's needs.
4. Make a video from your case study. Videos are more popular than ever, and turning a lengthy case study into a brief video is a great way to get your case study in front of people who might not normally read a case study.
5. Use your case study on a landing page. You can pull quotes from the case study and use those on product pages. Again, this format works best when you use market segmentation.
6. Post about your case studies on social media. You can share links on Twitter, Facebook and LinkedIn. Write a little interesting tidbit, enough to capture your client's interest, and then place the link.
7. Use your case study in your email marketing. This is most effective if your email list is segmented, and you can direct your case study to those most likely to be receptive to it.
8. Use your case studies in your newsletters. This can be especially effective if you use segmentation with your newsletters, so you can gear the case study to those most likely to read and value it.
9. Give your sales team copies of your case study. This is a great opportunity for your sales people to get your case study directly in front of the people who would most benefit from reading it. In addition, the personal connection is always a benefit, especially if you're outside sales people develop good and strong relationships.
The Process of Researching A Case Study
You are ready to start researching your case study. You have your topic and your hypothesis. What is next? It is time to start researching for your case study. This research can include many different things, but usually focuses on interviews and observations.
The heart of the case study is the research notebook. Every researcher must have a physical notebook to record all finding, notes and observations. While some computer programs and other technological advances can be used, nothing can replace the original research notebook.
Preliminary Research
Once you have chosen your topic, you must do preliminary research to determine whether the topic is viable or not. To do this, you can review newspapers, databases, industry websites, and other previously published case studies. With some topics you might even want to discuss your idea with other people in your field.
You must be certain that you have access to enough information to accurately determine whether or not the topic is viable. It is always a good idea to have one or two backup ideas in the event your first idea doesn't pan out.
Once you have your topic, you must choose which perspective the story should be told.
From what perspective will the reader see the case?
Who is the decision maker in the case?
When will the story begin and when will it end?
You want the case study to be a readable story, so you want to make sure you include enough background so the reader is invested in the story and the study. You want to include enough background that your readers get invested in the story, but not so much they are overwhelmed with too much information.
Make a Timeline
Constructing a timeline is the next step. This timeline should list all events in chronological order, and can be several pages long. However, it will help both you and the reader to understand the time frame, and be able to keep the people and events straight. It can be easy to forget what happened and when without a detailed timeline.
It is also important to set your own timeline. When do you want the case study completed by? If you have one year to complete the study, you must determine how much time you have to conduct background information, do interviews, have time to analyze the findings, and writing the report. Using a timeline can help you stay on task.
Detail Key Players in the Study
Make a list of all the important people in the study, and list them alphabetically using their name and role in the study. You will need to explain to your readers who each person is, and what their background is.
For example, the "Genie" case study has very heavy background information for all of people related to Genie. Her immediate family, her father, mother, and brother all have extremely detailed backgrounds, as that information is essential to Genie's story.
The background information about Genie's father went back to his childhood, as researchers wanted to know what caused her father to be so abusive. Same for her mother, researchers wanted to know why exactly she was willing to sit by and allow her husband to abuse Genie.
When the researchers obtained all this information, they did so with some paper research, but mostly interviews. Since Genie's father committed suicide soon after she was discovered, they were unable to interview him. Therefore, they had to interview those who knew of him. Researchers were surprised to find that most people who knew Genie's father had no idea that he even had a daughter.
Identify Critical Issues
List all critical issues in the case, and rank them based on importance. This information is for you, the researcher, and not your reader. Next to each issue write why the issue is important, and why it is necessary for the study.
Check off each issue as you handle them, and list any resources attached to the issue. You must have a source for everything used in your study. Make sure each issue is accurate, and backed by verifiable research. If you cannot corroborate information, then you must cross it off of the list.
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In the Genie case, there were many critical issues. The case study was about acquiring language skills, of which Genie had almost none of when found. The study was going to be an attempt to see whether Genie could acquire language skills as a teenager.
But the Genie case was not that simple. Yes there were language issues. But there were other serious issues as well, such as her behavior, medical issues, and emotional problems. All of these issues had o be identified and dealt with as the study progressed.
Perform Background Research
If the case study is about a person or people, it will be necessary to research their backgrounds for any relevant information that could be useful in the study. This could include medical history, including medical history of the subject's family.
When performing research, you want to use basic academic research strategies. This includes knowing the difference between primary and secondary research.
Primary research – Primary research is original research done by the researcher. This means that the research is new, and doesn't appear in any other case study.
Secondary research – Secondary research is research done by reading publications from other experts in your field. This research can be used to reach conclusions on your own ideas.
Performing Obtrusive Observation
In case studies that use human subjects, you cannot overtly "spy" on your subjects. This means you must use obtrusive observation, which means your subjects are aware that you are observing them.
In this type of study, you can speak with your subjects and make them feel comfortable about the study. Just remember that your presence will affect your subject's behavior, regardless of the type of relationship you have with them.
The best way to observe your subjects in less inhibited behavior is to establish trust with them. You want to be friendly, while not becoming too close. You want to maintain a level of professionalism. Also, people will be less inhibited in natural environments, such as their home or workplace.
Using questionnaires are a great way to conduct obtrusive research. Your subjects will know they are being watched, but it is an easy way to obtain general information.
Take Notes!
When conducting any type of research, it is essential to take as many notes as possible. When possible, some researchers use a tape recorder and speak their observations. This usually isn't possible with observational research, so you will have to take extensive notes.
In some cases, you might need to ask your participants to keep diaries so they can record their personal experiences.
With the Genie case, all of her sessions were videotaped, and in some instances, other researchers sat in on her sessions. Her mother gave authorization for the sessions to be videotaped, but in retrospect, many child development specialists and other professionals had an issue with the ethics surrounding the videotaping.
The researchers who would sit in on the sessions would write down all observations about Genie, such as how she looked, her behavior, whether she was ill, and how she was responding to the interviews done by the lead researcher. They would also record observations of the main researcher. For instance, if the main researcher was tired or ill, did that affect how they worked with Genie that day. Since the Genie case couldn't be ethically recreated, it was important that every possible observation be made.
The Interview Process
This is often the backbone of the case study, and the single most important way to get information from your study participants. Depending on the size of the study, interviews could be conducted weekly or monthly. You will want to use the questions you developed in the planning stage, and then dig deeper if necessary.
When asking questions to your subjects, keep your focus on the following:
1. Describe the experience – When interviewing the subject ask them what it's like to participate in the study.
2. Describe the meaning – When interviewing the subject ask them what the study means to them, and what, if anything, they will take from the experience.
3. The focus – As the interview progresses be certain to keep the focus on the study, while keeping an open mind to any newly developing questions or ideas.
When asking questions, you want a balance of open-ended and close-ended questions. For example, a researcher studying PTSD in veterans could have the following set of questions:
1. Which event of war did you find most upsetting when they happened?
2. When you have nightmares, what are they about?
3. Based on a scale of 1-10, where do you rank the sound of gunfire?
4. Based on a scale on 1-10, where do you rank the image of an injured child?
5. When you think of an injured child, how do you feel?
As you can see, these questions require the subject to speak about his experiences, but some questions are quantitative, such as ranking triggers on a scale of 1-10.
Stay Rigorous!
Case studies are not as data-driven as medical or scientific trials or large studies. But that doesn't mean you can lose or relax attention to detail. The study methodology must remain strict.
If you have multiple interview subjects, make sure you spend equal time with all subjects. You may find yourself drawn to certain subjects, especially if their results are helping or proving your case. However, keep interviewing and observing your typical subjects as well. You won't be able to judge the veracity of their responses until after the interview period is over, and you begin to review you notes.
Collecting and Analyzing Data
Once the interviews have been completed, it is time to analyze all of the information you gained during the interview process. How you do this will depend on how many people you interviewed, and the depth and length of those interviews.
Key Term
Qualitative Data
Qualitative data is a measurement expressed in terms of language, not numbers. Data expressed in numbers is called quantitative data.
There are two main ways to analyze qualitative data, and these are deductive and inductive.
The deductive method uses structured and predetermined framework to analyze the data. This means the researcher sets the standards using his own ideas or theories, and uses them to analyze the interview transcripts.
This type of approach is best for situations when the researcher is already aware of possible subject responses. For example, if veterans state that certain wartime activities cause PTSD, the researcher may know which activities these are. When it comes to analyzing the data, the researcher can completed the data assessment marking which veteran experienced which negative wartime activity.
The deductive method can also be faulty, especially if the researcher doesn't do enough background research. If the researcher has never been to war, or fought combat, there are things that occur that the researcher may not be privy to. Without knowing this, the researcher could be leaving out a major trigger of PTSD.
The inductive method analyzes data based on zero predetermined notions. A researcher using this method goes into the study blind, and uses the data obtained in the study to determine the solutions.
For example, a researcher studying the triggers for PTSD would conduct all of the interviews, and then use the results to determine what was the biggest trigger. Some vets may say that gunfire is a trigger; others might say that seeing an injured child is a trigger. The researcher will record every possible trigger mentioned by the vets, and then will mark down each time of the vets mentioned the particular trigger.
The inductive method is the most common form of data analysis used in case studies.
Other Fields that make use of Case Studies
Case studies are a valuable way to study and learn about a person, group, place, event, a company or an organization. When most people think of a case study, they think of a psychological case study or a business case study.
But case studies are used in almost every field, and are incredibly valuable in all of them. Outside of psychology, sociology and business, here are the next five fields that utilize case studies.
Medicine
Case studies are a mainstay of medicine. In fact, when confronted with challenging cases, doctors look to past case studies to determine what the next course of action should be. Medical case studies are normally submitted to medical journals for publishing when they are completed.
The process of developing the medical case study is similar to that of other case studies, and follows the following steps.
1. Select the case – The key to the successful case study is finding a patient that has a rare or unusual sickness or illness. It is these unique cases that are most often selection by medical journals for publication.
When searching for a case, speak with physicians about which of their cases might make an interesting case study. Senior physicians are an invaluable source of information, since they have so much experience. They may even have notes or other resources that could be available to you.
2. Research the case – Review medical journals on the diagnosis that will be the focus of your study. Medical libraries are a great place to find journal articles or books that can provide background information.
3. Obtain Patient Information and Consent - You are required to obtain written patient consent before using a patient in your study. This is an ethical requirement. Most medical journals have their own forms that must be completed before your study can be published.
You will need to get all patient information, such as age, medical history, medications taken, etc. You want detailed info so that your audience will be informed about the case. You will also want to learn about any history of mental health issues, and if the subject has any emotional or mental issues.
4. Write the medical case study – The medical case study follows the same format as most case studies. It will have an abstract, introduction, and presentation of the case, possible solutions, and the conclusion. You will also have to include all references.
The abstract is a short written summary that will summarize the entire case study. The abstract is what is published in the medical journals, and will be your opportunity to "sell" your case study to readers.
5. Submit case study to professional medical journals – Normally you can only submit to one journal at a time. If your study is rejected, the publication will let you know why. Then you can choose to fix the study based on the journal's recommendations, or decide to submit to a different journal entirely.
In order for the FDA to consider drug trials, or for professional oversight committees to consider new methods of therapy, a case study must be published in a respected medical journal.
Law
The legal word is based on cases, so case studies are a mainstay of the legal world. Lawyers and judges are constantly referring to case studies when needing to make decisions and plan legal strategies.
The process of developing legal case studies is similar to that of other case studies, and follows the following steps. They use them throughout the entire trial process, from opening statements to closing statements.
1. Decide on the case – When choosing a case look to back events involving legal issues for ideas. Look for ideas in newspapers, case dockets, etc. The case you select should be the most appealing case possible that will be most interesting to the legal audience. Remember you want interesting cases, not necessarily famous or infamous cases.
2. Initial research – Review all secondary sources, and make observations. Once you have done all the preliminary research, conduct interviews as necessary. Be sure to have the cooperation of all participants.
3. Write first draft of case – This is where you should decide if you want to enhance objectives or the characters. This is the step where you want to get as much information down on paper as possible. You can return later to fix spelling and grammatical errors.
4. Supplemental research and final drafts – At this point you must do whatever secondary research is required to fix any inconsistencies or to clarify objectives or conflicts. Clear the first draft with your participants and get approval to publish.
Engineering
Engineering can cover many disciplines, from electrical, chemical, software, and even mechanical. The type of case study will determine how it should be formatted.
Historical case study – You will organize a historical case study as follows:
1. Context – What is the case being investigated? Make sure you focus only on the facts.
2. Approach – When researching the topic refer to ideas or theories so you can justify your interpretations. Highlight prior recommendations and solutions.
3. Conclusion – Make sure you can answer the following questions. What has been achieved since the situation or event, and have all of the recommendations been implemented? Also, be able to answer what could happen in the future.
Problem-oriented case study - You will organize a problem-oriented case study as follows:
1. Describe the case – Present the main idea you are analyzing and what decisions have been made. Make sure you focus on the facts!
2. Explain your methods – Be able to identify any problems in the study, and explain how you plan to analyze the information.
3. Present the summary – Make sure you can explain what solutions are acceptable and which are not.
4. Have an action plan – Your recommendations must be detailed. Your action plan should state who should take action and when.
Counseling
Counseling is one of those fields where case studies are essential. Since counseling isn't a perfect science, it heavily relies on studies of past cases to help guide them with existing clients. Counseling case studies are formatted similar to other medical studies.
1. Case history
Background information – The first part of the study is accumulating all of the patient's background information. This will include the basics, such as age, gender, work status, etc., but will also include the patients history of mental illness, any drug or alcohol use, as well as coping skills. Also note if there is any history of drug or alcohol use.
2. Description of the problem
The second stage of the study is to describe the problem that the patients has. The study must clearly detail the symptoms being experiences, along with any additional physical or sensory symptoms.
3. The diagnosis – This section should clearly lay out the diagnosis, based on the diagnoses from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual. Make certain to explain how the patient's symptoms fit the diagnosis.
4. Intervention – Intervention is how the counselor plans on helping the patient. Some of the forms of intervention include:
1.Psychoanalytic – This section would describe how a psychoanalyst would solve the problem. Be sure to back up the information with relevant client resources.
2. Cognitive-Behavioral – This section would describe how effective cognitive behavior therapy might be for the patient. Make sure to note any problems or successes found during the treatment with the client.
3. Humanist – This section would describe how the humanist approach would work on the client. Again, as with the previous types of therapy, be sure to note all observations throughout the process.
When writing up the case study, don't use the terms "client" or "patient". Use their name or a pseudonym. Even if using a pseudonym, you must obtain informed consent before publishing the case study.
When writing up the study, use APA format and cite all references. Read samples and examples of other case studies to get a better understanding of the style and format best for a counseling case study.
Ethics
Ethics is one of the most subjective fields there is. Think about it. Ethics is basically the determination of what is right and what is wrong. Ethicists use case studies as support for new ideas and theories. The process of developing ethics case studies is similar to that of other case studies, and follows the following steps.
Choosing the topic – As with all case studies, choosing the topic is the first step.
What should you look for when choosing a topic? Here are some tips.
1. Choose a topic you find interesting. Conducting a case study is much easier when you are interested and engaged in the topic.
2. Choose a topic that will benefit you. You will spend a lot of time conducting the study, so make sure the topic will help advance your ongoing research.
3. Choose a topic that will fit within the time you have to complete the study. You don't want to end up in a study that you cannot complete due to time constraints.
4. Decide what you believe. You will see a lot of opinions for ethical topics, and you don't want those to sway you. Decide what you believe and stick with it.
5. Write your thesis, and refine as needed. A thesis can change as more information comes to light.
6. Consider any objections to your thesis. This is normal and essential, as you should be able to counter any objections thrown your way. This will help your ideas become clearer.
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Before submitting the final paper, you must make sure you haven't made any mistakes, many of which are common in ethical case studies.
1. Don't use rhetoric. Rhetorical questions are used to dismiss an idea.
2. Don't use clichés. Yes, ethical studies are subjective. But that doesn't mean you can use clichés.
3. Make sure you know the meanings of words. Don't use big words just so you can sound impressive. Don't use dead words or extra words to make your study longer. Use the professional vocabulary used in the ethics field. Don't overwhelm your reader, and remember to consider your audience.
4. Be concise, and consistent! Don't be overly wordy or confusing. Get to the point and stick to it.
5. Proofread your case study over and over again. And when you are done, proofread it one last time. Do not rely on spellcheck or a grammar checker. Grammar checkers can't differentiate between affect and effect, or their/they're, there.
6. Use gender-neutral language. Use he/she or him/her. You want to read to believe the subject could be male or female.
7. Make sure you state whatever you are leaving out. You obviously can't cover all of the issues, and there is nothing wrong with that. In fact, it is important that your reader knows you are aware of other issues, but simply chosen not to include them.
8. If there is an issue you are undecided about, admit that. It is okay to be undecided. It is possible to see strong arguments on both sides of an issue, and not be able to decide which side you fall on.
9. If you make a mistake, admit it, and learn from it. Maintain a list of any errors you make so you can be certain you don't make them again. Review the list before you submit the final draft of your case study.
Types of Workplace Case Studies
When people think of case studies, they usually imagine a psychological case study. And while case studies are most prevalent in the sciences, they are also heavily used in the business world.
Think about it. What better way to learn about business than to look back at those that have succeeded or failed in the past? Here are some of the most well known case studies in the business world. How many are you familiar with?
Tylenol Scandal
This case study was so valuable because it detailed a unique event that could not be replicated. This study is used today for many different reasons.
In 1982, when it was discovered that people were dying of cyanide poisoning after ingesting Tylenol capsule, the Tylenol brand almost collapsed. No one knew how the cyanide got into the capsules, but that didn't matter to people who took the medication. No one was willing to take the risk.
The parent company of Tylenol, Johnson & Johnson, started a marketing campaign to turn the product around. First, they stopped selling capsules, and only sold tablets or "caplets" in tamper-resistant packaging. Also, when the new safer packaging was released, they offered coupons for $1.50 off each bottle. This strategy worked, and Tylenol quickly regained the market share they had lost.
Key Takeaway: Being open, honest and proactive will help the company and/or product survive.
Workplace Drug Abuse
The Amber case study detailed employee drug abuse. "Amber" was an administrative assistant at a large company. When she started she was an excellent employee. But over time, her behavior changed and her work product suffered.
She started arriving late to work, and would offer call in sick. She would borrow money from coworkers, and fail to pay it back. She started treating customers poorly. Eventually, she was found using cocaine in the bathroom, and promptly fired.
This termination left a vacancy in the company that took months to fill.
This case study set up most of the employee drug use protocol that is used in business today. It is believed that if the employer addressed the problems earlier, they could have saved money and time, and might have also helped Amber. This study lead to programs to help identify drug use in the workplace, along with programs to help employees who might have a drug problem.
Key Takeaway: Identifying employee drug issues as early as possible are better for the employee and employer.
Hickory Farms
Most people of a certain age know of Hickory Farms. There were famous for their holiday gift baskets, and their expensive holiday catalogs. They sold meats, such as sausage and ham, as well as cheese and other food products.
However, as the use of the Internet increased, Hickory Farms started to lose sales. People weren't using catalogs as often, and it was costly Hickory Farms millions to maintain inventories of products that weren't selling. The company was in danger of bankruptcy.
In order to change this around, Hickory Farms slashed the number of products they sold. Originally they sold over 2500 products, but dropped that to just 300 products. They also modernized their visuals and packaging, and completely redid their website so it would be easier for shoppers to use their website.
Cutting all the products and streamlining the packaging saved the company money, which they were able to pass onto their customers. Hickory Farms continues to succeed to this day, and has been very helpful to other companies that find themselves in the same situation.
Key Takeaway: It is important to change with the times and stay modern.
Ryanair
Ryanair is a discount airline company located in Ireland. It was started by two brothers, the Ryan's, who wanted to take on the large airline companies. However, the airline business is extremely competitive with very little profit margin.
Ryanair knew in order to compete, they would have to offer cheaper flights than other airline companies. To do this, they cut costs wherever they could, and passed that savings onto their customers.
At first this wasn't popular. They cut all food service on planes, and removed small comforts such as pillows and blankets. They started to sell advertising and placed ads on seat backs. The airline seats didn't recline, and there were no seat-back pockets. This led to less garbage and the ability to clean the planes quicker.
Eventually, the promise of low fares won over the public. Their prices were so low that they were able to gain customers who normally could only afford to travel by ferry or train. Ryanair is now the largest airline company in Europe, and the largest international airliner.
Key Takeaway: Focusing on a single business model and streamlining costs can help a company challenge competitors.
Apple Computer
Everyone knows Apple, Inc. If you don't own an iPhone, you know twenty people who do. But did you know that Apple once was only known as a computer company?
Apple began as Apple Computer, and they were mostly known for their Mac, or Macintosh computers. However, while the Mac was a successful and valuable computer, it could never compete with the personal computer, or PC, for market share.
Therefore, Apple wanted to branch out and start selling new tech products such as the iPod and the iPhone. They would still make their iconic Mac's and MacBook's, but the company believed the future lied in handheld devices.
When Apple Computer changed its name to Apple, Inc., non-computer products already amounted to half of their revenues. The name change allowed it to break away from being a computer company. After all, would you want to buy a phone from a computer company?
Key Takeaway: If you can't beat a competitor head-on, find other routes to increase company revenue.
Developing the Business Case Study
Why would a business develop a case study? There could be numerous reasons, but one of the most popular is to help with sales.
For example, imagine a small software company that sells a product that streamlines the human resources departments of small companies. They want to find better ways to increase sales of their human resources computer program.
So, they decide to develop a case study. The company develops the study hoping that it will prove that businesses that use their program save more money than businesses that do not use their program.
To do this study, they will most likely hire an outside company to do the research and develop the study. It will also require companies that are currently using the product to agree to be in the study. Or, the company will have to give away their product in return for the business agreeing to be in the study.
If the study proves that the HR program saves businesses money, the case study will have been proven successful, and well worth the cost of developing it. If the case study proves the opposite, than it will be a sign to the company that it needs to work on the product and make improvements.
Developing a business case study is basically the same as developing any type of case study, and will follow the same steps.
1. What is the background of the case study? Why does the business world need this case study? Also, how much will the case study cost?
2. What is the problem that needs a solution? What is the situation, and what are the risks? This is the key part of the business case study. These studies exist to show other businesses how to better manage their companies, and how to be more successful.
3. What questions are required to analyze the problem? What questions might the reader of the study have? What questions might colleagues have? To proceed with the study the researcher must have a list of questions that could be answered through the process of the study.
4. What tools are required to analyze the problem? Is data analysis necessary? Will the study require quantitative analysis or qualitative analysis, or both?
5. What is your current knowledge about the problem or situation? How much background information do you need to procure? How will you obtain this background info? This will vary depending on the writer's relationship with the company. Some companies do their own internal case studies, while some outsource it to outside research companies.
6. What other information do you need to know to successfully complete the study? Will interviews be necessary? Will it be necessary for the researcher to observe the subjects?
This step is particularly important if the developer of the case study does not work for the company being studied. For example, a business student might want to do a case study on how to increase retention of employees. Obtaining data for this type of study could be challenging if the student doesn't have access to the company's information and resources.
7. How do you plan to present the report? Will it be a simple written report, or will you add PowerPoint presentations or images or videos? When is the report due? Are you giving yourself enough time to complete the project? How will the report be distributed?
Writing the Business Case Study
As with regular case studies, business case studies follow a particular format. However, there are addition steps you can take to make the study more interesting to the business reader. Here are the steps you should take when writing up your business case study:
1. The Title – The title should be short and to the point. You want the title to be compelling and focus on the most important accomplishment.
For example, which of the following titles do you think is most effective?
Examining the effect of the Internet on women's clothing catalog sales.
Or
What happens when a company that sells women's clothing via a catalog starts to lose money, and how to find ways to turn that around.
The first title is obviously much better. The title doesn't need to tell a story. It just has to clearly explain what the study is about.
2. The Executive Summary – The executive summary is a short paragraph of about 2-4 sentences that sums up the entire case study. You will want to accompany the summary with bullet points that demonstrate successes or failings.
3. About – The about section should introduce the reader to the company or business, as well as the key people involved with the organization. Write a paragraph about each key person, including their background and why they are needed or relevant to the study.
4. Challenges – This section should be about a page long, and should clearly detail all the challenges faced by the business. This could be about declining sales, employee retention, or any of many other business issues.
5. Solutions – This section should be about a page long, and should clearly detail all solutions found during the case study. Each solution should be listed, as well as how that solution was discovered. The solutions don't all have to be successful. In fact, just as much can be learned from unsuccessful solutions as successful ones.
6. Results – This section should be about a page long, and should clearly lie out the results of the study. This is where you prove to the reader that you had a problem and found a solution to it.
7. Visuals or Supporting Documents – This section should include any relevant images, charts or graphs that will help the reader better understand the goals of the case study. However, do not overuse images.
8. Conclusion – The conclusion should be about a paragraph or two, and should cleanly wrap up the case study. The reader should finish the study understanding the problem posed, and the solution offered.
Developing Educational Case Studies
Case studies can be used in education as a teaching tool. Many students learn better using real-life examples, and case studies can be an effective way to learn in the classroom.
Case studies have a history of being used in business schools, law schools, medical schools, and other master programs. These cases can come in different forms, with some being basic "what would you do?" type questions, and some being very detailed and requiring data analysis.
Assignments and homework for these types of studies usually require students to answer open-ended questions about a possible solution to a problem. Usually these projects are done by a group of students, as group learning is often more effective.
What Are Case Studies?
A case is basically a story. A case recounts events or problems in a way that students can learn from their complexities and ambiguities. The students can learn from the original participants in the case, whether it is business people, doctors, or other professionals.
The students are able to take over a case, and dissect key information in order to find solutions to the problems. This allows students to be able to:
1. Determine pertinent information
2. Identify the problem and its parameters
3. Identify possible solutions
4. Form strategies and ideas for action
5. Make decisions to fix the problems
The History of the Case Study Method
The founder of the case study method was Christopher Langdell, who attended Harvard Law School from 1851-1854. He was very studious, and spent most of his time in the library. This is when he started to formulate the case method.
At the time, law schools used the Dwight Method of teaching, which was a combination of lecture, recitations and drills. This method focused highly on memorization, and didn't allow for much actual learning, just rote repetitions.
Langdell's method was completely different. He required his students to only read cases, and to draw their own conclusions. To help them, he published sets of cases with a short introduction.
Narrative Case Studies
Narrative case studies use a comprehensive history of a problem, along with the several parts of the typical case study, to teach using the case method. With this method students try to find better solutions to problems, and find ways to analyze why their chosen solution is best.
An example of a narrative case study is the Tylenol cyanide scandal. In 1982 seven people died after ingesting Tylenol tablets laced with cyanide.
Almost immediately Tylenol's market share dropped from 37% to 7%. Johnson & Johnson, the parent company had to work quickly to save the product. They reintroduced the product with tamper resistant packaging and a large media campaign.
Johnson & Johnson was successful. The Tylenol brand recovered and regained customer trust.
The Tylenol Scandal case study details everything that happened from beginning to end. It also details each step J&J took when turning the scandal around…both positive and negative steps.
This case study is now used in business, marketing, crisis management and other disciplines to help them solve their own problems. They can look at what J&J did to solve their problems, and use that information to fix their own issues.
As a teaching tool, this case study allows the students to analyze each step Johnson & Johnson went through, and whether or not any other solutions were possible.
Decision-Forming Case
A decision-forcing case doesn't provide an outcome, and therefore forces the students to determine an outcome on their own. Often these cases have an epilogue, which completes the story.
The formats of these cases can vary. They can be standard written cases, PowerPoint presentations, movies or movie clips, or even TV or news stories. Regardless of the type of case, they all:
llustrate the issues typical to the type of case study
Show theoretical frameworks
Leave out assumptions
Show realistic ambiguities and tensions.
Common Case Elements
Most cases, whether legal, business, or other, have the same common elements. These are:
1. A decision maker who has a problem that needs to be solved.
2. A description of the context of the problem.
3. Data that supports the study, which could include interviews, documents or images.
Case studies can be done individually, but are usually done in a small group so students can problem solve together as a team.
The Case Study Method
The case study method is two-parted. One part is the case itself, and other part is the discussion of the case. Case studies are chosen for teaching based on how rich the narrative is, and whether the people in the study are required to make a decision or solve a problem.
When using case studies, the focus is not on the data or the analysis. The students analyze the case and try to find ways to find solutions and solve problems. This method is most often used in groups, with a focus on classroom discussion.
When students are given a study by a teacher, they should attack each case with the following checklist.
1. Thoroughly read the case and formulate your own opinions before sharing ideas with others in your group or class. You must be able to identify the problems on your own, as well as be able to offer solutions and alternatives. Before the study is discussed with the group, you must be able to form your own outline and course of action.
2. Once you have a clear understanding of the case, you can share your ideas with other members of your group.
3. Open discussion of the case and listen to the input of others in your group and class.
4. Reflect back on how your original ideas changed as a result of the group discussion.
Teaching the Case Method
Professors have several ways to use case studies in the classroom. The first way is as an adjunct to normal lectures. A lecture might discuss a certain facet of business, and the case study can be used to backup the information learned in the lecture.
This type of teaching doesn't require large case studies, and can get by using excerpts and other extractions. The benefits of this method are that it only needs little preparation, and is a great way to introduce case studies into the classroom.
The second way is to use the case studies to challenge the student's solutions, and help them formulate new strategies. This is the typical case study method. Students work together to formulate solutions and conclusions, and allow students to learn from each other.
Gaining Skills With The Case Method
The case method is an excellent way for students to learn new cognitive skills, as well as improve their analysis and evaluation skills. Here is a list of the skills that can be improved, and how the case method helps this process.
Knowledge – This is the student's ability to remember information and ability to recall it.
Comprehension – This is the student's ability to understand what they are learning. The case method helps this by using examples in a real-world context.
Application – This is the student's ability to use their knowledge in new ways. This could mean new rules, ideas or theories. The case method helps students understand how these ideas and theories are used in the real world.
Analysis – This is the student's ability to break down information so it can be better understood. Since analysis is the basis of the case method, this skill is greatly improved.
Synthesis – This is the student's ability to form new ideas. Case studies help this skill by requiring them to identify new information and concepts. This is developed during group activities and discussions.
Evaluation – This is the student's ability to judge information for a particular reason. Again, this skill is a hallmark of the case study method, and the use of cases will help improve the student's evaluation skills.
Case Method Advantages
The largest advantage of the case study method is that students must actively and openly discuss the principals of the study. This helps develop their skills in:
Problem solving
Analysis, both quantitative and qualitative
Decision making
Dealing with ambiguities
Case Method Criticisms
While the case study method has been seen as a very successful way of learning, it does have its criticisms. Here is a list of some of the drawbacks of the learning method.
1. Students often fight for airtime, and may not fully think through their thoughts. Many students want to be first, and place more importance in that than being right. This results in analysis that is superficial and not well thought-out.
2. Students in business management courses don't always have the same background experience, and this can contribute to issues with experience.
3. The background information provided for the case analysis is often limited to whatever was supplied with the case.
4. If cases are too old, they may no longer be relevant. Cases that are older than 10 years shouldn't be used if possible. This is particularly the case with business studies, since changes occur quite frequently in the business world. For example, case studies that detail companies before the Internet are often out of date. You wouldn't want to study Barnes & Noble without knowing how eBooks affected their bottom line.
5. The case study method is not a good way to learn the technicals of finance and accounting. Not every MBA student has a strong background in accounting or finance, and vice versa. Furthermore, students don't always attend business school at the same time in their careers. Many students get their MBA's while in their 20's, while other students wait until they are in their 30's or 40's.
6. With the case method, there isn't a right or wrong answer. This can cause students to leave the lesson without key takeaways. In addition, this method cannot work for areas that have unique answers…this is why the case method would never work in physics or mathematics.
Those who disagree with the total case method teaching method believe the best alternative is a balance between cases and lectures.
The most recent iteration is a combination of both. They offer lectures to learn the fundamentals, and cases to determine whether or not the students understand the fundamentals enough to apply them to real-world situation.
The Case Study Method in Business School
Most top business schools use the case study method, including Harvard Business School. When students are given a case, they are required to be the decision maker, and they must read the study and identify the problems.
Once the problem has been identified, the student must analyze the situation and find solutions that can solve the problem. There can often be several possible solutions.
Students work in teams to solve the cases, discussing each facet of the case with their classmates. The teacher or instructor guides the students when necessary, and will often suggest courses of action when necessary.
In classrooms that use the case method, students do about 90% of the talking. The professors only speak in order to explain fundamentals or to steer the conversation. Class participation is essential, and it can amount to up to 50% of a student's grade. During the two years spent in business school, students will normally study over 500 cases.
Want to learn more? Take an online course in How to Write Case Studies.
Case Studies in Psychology and Social
Sciences
Case studies are used in just about every discipline, from business, to the arts, and education. But case studies are most prevalent in psychology and the social sciences, where case studies form a strong basis for all other clinical and non-clinical research.
If you are studying psychology, a part of your education will include the use of case studies. Case studies are how we learn and expand our knowledge, and how we build on older ideas and theories and attempt to make them better.
The Most Well-Known Psychological Case Studies
One of the best ways to learn about and better understand psychological case studies is to read and familiarize yourself with the most well-known case studies. These are the studies that every psychology student will learn about.
John-John
The John-John case was a pioneering study about gender and sexuality. This is one of those unique cases that cannot be recreated.
John-John focused on a set of twin boys, both of whom were circumcised at the age of 6 months. One of the twin's circumcisions failed, causing irreparable damage to the penis. His parents were concerned about the sexual health of their son, so they contacted Dr. John Money for a solution.
Think!
What makes the John/John case study so valuable?
What can be learned about the psychological case study method itself?
Dr. Money believed that sexuality came from nurture, not nature, and that the injured baby, Bruce, could be raised as a girl. His penis was removed and he was sexually reassigned to become a girl. Bruce's name was changed to Brenda, and his parents decided to raise him as a girl.
In this case, Dr. Money was dishonest. He believed that gender could be changed, which has since been proven false. Brenda's parents were also dishonest, stating that the surgery was a success, when in fact that wasn't the case.
As Brenda grew up, she always acted masculine and was teased for it at school. She did not socialize as a girl, and did not identify as a female. When Brenda was 13 she learned the truth, and was incredibly relieved. She changed her name to David, and lived the rest of her life as a male.
Jill Price
Jill Price was believed to have a condition called hyperthymesia, which gave her a remarkable memory. She could remember the tiniest details, such as what she ate for lunch 10 years prior on a random Monday.
This condition caused her great harm because she focused on all the negative events in her life, even the small ones like derogatory remarks. Price participated in the study hoping it would help her deal with her condition.
Through the study, it was determined that Price wasn't a memory whiz, and that her abilities were completely blown out of proportion. She wasn't able to memorize lists of words or names. Her memory was focused only on events that were relevant to her. For example, she could remember famous dates, but only if they were relevant to her or her life.
Doctors also did brain scans, and through the study, determined that she had a form of obsessive-compulsive disorder, or OCD. Price was obsessed with the negative things that had happened to her in her life, and that obsession cause the increased memory in her instance.
Future research will have to be done to corroborate this theory.
H.M.
H.M., the initials of Henry Molaison, is probably the most important case study in the field of neuroscience. HM was in a bike accident at the age of 9, and it caused brain damage that resulted in seizures.
In an attempt to end his seizures, surgeons removed small slivers of his brain from the hippocampus, which we now know is the area of the brain that is critical to memory. As a result of the surgery, HM was left with amnesia. He was unable to form new memories, and had issues remembering old memories.
This case study was the basis for future studies of human memory. Because of this study, we know that memory has two parts that work together. One part is located in the hippocampus, which is where facts and memories are stored. This one study revolutionized the study of the brain and memory.
Phineas Gage
Phineas Gage was a railroad worker who was injured in a workplace accident. He was packing gunpowder into a rock, and a spark caused the tampering iron to shoot through his cheek into his skull. His frontal lobe was damaged, but he survived the accident and was able to talk and walk immediately after.
The study was done about his personality, which immediately changed. He became short tempered and angry. He lost his friends, family, and his job. This study allowed researchers to study the frontal lobe and how it is involved in higher mental functions. It also proved that the brain was the basis for personality and behavior.
GENIE
Genie
By now you are probably familiar with Genie case, and why it was such a breakthrough case study. Of all the case studies that exist, it is Genie that has allowed the most inroads to be made in the psychological field.
Genie was a feral child. She was raised in completed isolation, with little human contact. Because of the abuse she withstood, she was unable to develop cognitively. From infancy she was strapped to a potty chair, and therefore never acquired the physicality needed for walking, running and jumping.
If Genie made a noise, her father beat her. Therefore, she learned to not make a noise. Once she was found, researchers studied her language skills, and attempted to find ways to get her to communicate. They were successful. While she never gained the ability to speak, she did develop other ways to communicate. However, the public soon lost interest in her case, and with that, the funds to conduct the study.
However, her case was extremely important to child development psychology and linguistic theory. Because of her, we know that mental stimulation is needed for proper development. We also now know that there is a "critical period" for the learning of language.
The Most Well-Known Case Studies in Sociology
Sociology is a science much like psychology. In sociology, the study is of social behavior, how it originated, and how it exists today. Like most sciences, it isn't perfect, and therefore benefits from the use of case studies.
Sociological case studies have helped us identify problems in our culture, and have helped define possible solutions. Here are some of the most well-known studies in sociology, the ones that defined and shaped the field.
Fast Food Nation
Fast Food Nation is a book by Eric Schlosser, about how the fast food industry is related to the American life.
Americans love their fast food. It is said that most toddlers are able to identify the golden arches of McDonald's before they are able to read. Fast Food Nation uncovered some disturbing facts about the fast food industry. He discovered that fast food has widened the gap between rich and poor, and has contributed to the obesity epidemic.
His study details how much of this happened, and most of it is very unsettling.
The study also touched on other sociological issues, such as farming and ethics. Since fast food restaurants needed more beef than ever, cattle farmers would find ways to make bigger cows, and would find ways to own more cattle. This often led to overcrowding and poor care of the animals.
Milgram Obedience Studies
Stanley Milgram did a study from 1960 to 1974 in which he studied the effects of social pressure. The study was set up as an independent laboratory. A random person would walk in, and agree to be a part of the study. He was told to act as a teacher, and ask questions to another volunteer, who was the learner.
The teacher would ask the learner questions, and whenever he answered incorrectly, the teacher was instructed to give the learner an electric shock. Each time the learner was wrong, the shock would be increased by 15 volts. What the teacher didn't know was that the learner was a part of the experiment, and that no shocks were being given. However, the learner did act as if they were being shocked.
If the teacher tried to quit, they were strongly pushed to continue. The goal of the experiment was to see whether or not any of the teachers would go up to the highest voltage. As it turned out, 65% of the teachers did.
This study opened eyes when it comes to social pressure. If someone tells you it is okay to hurt someone, at what point will the person back off and say "this is not ok!" And in this study, the results were the same, regardless of income, race, gender or ethnicity.
Think!
Why are sociological case studies necessary?
Name a sociological case study that has changed the way we think about culture today.
Nickel and Dimed
Nickel and Dimed is a book and study done by Barbara Ehrenreich. She wanted to study poverty in America, and did so by living and working as a person living on minimum wage.
She set up her experiment with three rules.
1. When looking for a job, she is unable to use her education or skills.
2. She had to take the highest paying job she gets, and do her best to keep it.
3. She had to take the cheapest housing she could find.
She lived in three cities in Florida, Maine and Minnesota.
Through her experiment, she discovered that poverty was almost inescapable. As soon as she saved a little money, she was hit with a crisis. She might get sick, or her car might break down, all occurrences that can be destructive when a person doesn't have a safety net to fall back on.
It didn't matter where she lived or what she did. Working a minimum wage job gave her no chances for advancement or improvement whatsoever. And she did the experiment as a woman with no children to support.
This study opened a lot of eyes to the problem of the working poor in America. By living and working as the experiment, Ehrenreich was able to show first-hand data regarding the issues surrounding poverty. The book didn't end with any solutions, just suggestions for the reader and points for them to think about.
The Culture of Fear
This study was written in 1999 by Barry Glassner, a professor of sociology at the University of Southern California. The study investigated why Americans are so engrossed with fear.
The study examined the organizations that caused the fear, and how they profited from the anxiety that resulted. Politicians, television news and magazine programs, were all found guilty of peddling fear, which causes people to worry needlessly and cost billions of dollars.
The study investigated why Americans have so many fears today, and why Americans are more fearful now than they were 20 years ago. Life is not more dangerous now than it was 20 years ago, and yet Americans are more afraid.
Glassner discovered that there are businesses and organizations that actually profit from these fears, and as such, find ways to create them. This of course leads to wasted money, time and resources.
Much of the blame is placed with the news media, who constantly inundates us with news stories that will increase their ratings. This is called the media-effects theory.
Think of shows like 20/20 or Dateline. These news programs focus on stories about crime, drugs and disasters, and they are extremely popular. Then these news networks sell advertising based on how many people watch their programs. So the news media has a vested interest in keeping people watching the news. The more crime and disaster increase, so do their ratings and advertising income.
The Basics of a Case Study
A case study is an in-depth study of a singular situation, person or event.
What does this mean?
In most disciplines, studies are required to prove a hypothesis. These studies are usually very large in nature, with the goal of proving a hypothesis. With a case study, a narrow topic is chosen that can prove (or disprove) an idea, question or hypothesis. Often, case studies are used alongside a larger formal study, or are used on their own.
Key Term!
Hypothesis
An idea or theory that hasn't been proven but has scientific merit and is worthy of a study to prove whether it is true or false.
Case studies are used in most disciplines that use or require statistical or informational data. For example, a well-known case study in the field of psychology is the case of "Genie", a feral child.
Obviously, researchers cannot lock up a child for a decade, and do research on the results. So, when a child was discovered locked up for 13 years, it was a perfect opportunity to do research and try to discover what the effects was of a child being isolated it's entire life.
Think!
What information could be garnered from the "Genie" case study? How could the case study be used to help children (or adults) under care today?
Case studies are also commonly used in the business world. For example, one of the most well-known business case studies is the Tylenol cyanide scandal. A quick refresher, in 1982 seven people died after ingesting Tylenol tablets laced with cyanide.
Almost immediately Tylenol's market share dropped from 37% to 7%. Johnson & Johnson, the parent company had to work quickly to save the product. They reintroduced the product with tamper resistant packaging and a large media campaign.
Johnson & Johnson was successful. The Tylenol brand recovered and regained customer trust.
The Tylenol Scandal case study details everything that happened from beginning to end. It also details each step J&J took when turning the scandal around…both positive and negative steps.
This case study is now used in business, marketing, crisis management and other disciplines to help them solve their own problems. They can look at what J&J did to solve their problems, and use that information to fix their own issues.
Who Uses Case Studies?
What makes a case study so valuable is that is it is real-life situation or problem. Dealing with hypothetical issues can be helpful, but using actual historical information and data is often a much better way to learn and fix an organization's problems.
Case studies are used in most disciplines, as well as education, where they are becoming more prevalent. In fact, some of the best universities, such as Harvard Business School, use the case method to educate its students.
Think about it, what better way to learn about a subject than to study real-life examples of similar situations?
Case studies are used in just about every discipline. For this article, case studies will belong to one of the following five groups.
Arts, Design, Media and Humanities
Business, Hospitality, Law, Sport and Tourism
Interdisciplinary
Education, Social and Environmental Sciences
Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics
Case studies are understandably useful for others to learn from, and an effective case study can help people, businesses, and organizations for years to come. However, what exactly goes into a case study, and how is one developed?
Why Develop A Case Study?
People have several reasons for wanting to develop a case study. For example, a technology company might want to learn why certain members of the population buy certain products. Or a psychologist might want to understand what is the best type of therapy for veterans with PTSD. To accomplish this, both would want to develop a case study.
Let's use our psychologist as an example.
A psychologist wants to begin offering specialized treatment for veterans suffering from PTSD. She currently has many veterans as patients, and she has determined that some therapeutic methods are more effective than others. She wants to use the information she is gaining to develop a track record for which methods are most effective. To do this, she will develop a case study.
Interested in learning more? Why not take an online class in How to Write Case Studies?
The psychologist will use data and information from her current patients (using strict privacy rules), as well as professional resources, to develop her case study. This case study could accomplish many things.
1. Pilot Research – If the psychologist wants to do large-scale research, starting with a few case studies is a great way to go. If the case studies show any patterns or trends, that information can be used to determine the best way to do advanced research.
2. Develop New Theories or Ideas – The psychologist may have her own ideas going into the study. Perhaps she believes that a combination of talk and group therapy is the best treatment for veterans with PTSD. Or maybe through her case study, she realizes that group therapy is often effective alone. If she develops a new theory, she can test it with additional research.
3. Change Existing Theories or Ideas – In psychology, ideas and treatments often change with time or new information or research. While conducting the case study, the psychologist might discover that older ideas are not as effective as newer treatments. If the psychologist feels current professional protocol is not as effective as newer treatments, a case study could be developed to challenge those ideas.
Key Terms!
Intrinsic Case Study
A study on a topic that is unique in itself. An example of this would be the study of Genie, the feral child.
Instrumental Case Study
A study on a more general phenomenon or similarity. An example of this would be a study to determine what therapies are most effective for war veterans with PTSD.
Types Of Case Studies
There are generally five different types of case studies, and the subjects that they address. These are:
Person – This type of study focuses on one particular individual. This case study would use several types of research to determine an outcome.
Group – This type of study focuses on a group of people. This could be a family, a group or friends, or even coworkers.
Location – This type of study focuses on a place, and how and why people use the place.
Organization/Company – This type of study focuses on a business or an organization. This could include the people who work for the company, or an event that occurred at the organization.
Event – This type of study focuses on an event, whether cultural or societal, and how it affects those that are affected by it.
Think!
What kind of case study is the "Genie" study?
What kind of case study is the "Tylenol Scandal" study?
What Is The Process For Developing A Case Study?
While case studies are smaller than larger research-based studies, their development still requires a strict and detailed systematic plan. There are several steps required to complete a full study. The basic plan is as follows:
1. Define The Task, Question or Topic
What is the topic of the case study? What question is the case study supposed to answer?
The first step is to determine what the case study will be about. This is when a researcher will develop their hypothesis.
This is also when research should be done to determine whether any case studies have been written on this topic in the past. This research can be difficult, since many small case studies exist. However, with the advent of the Internet, finding older studies is easier than it was in the past.
2. Do Research, Interviews, Collect Data
The research stage is the longest and most detailed of the case study process.
One of the primary methods used in case studies is an interview. Whether it is one person or several, the interview process is extremely important. Not only must the subject have several interviews, but also other experts in the subject should be interviewed. Their contribution can be invaluable.
When interviewing subjects, questioned should be open-ended so the subject is forced to answer with more than just a "yes" or "no". For example, when interviewing the first responders of "Genie", the researcher shouldn't say:
"When you found Genie, was she afraid of you?"
This question could easily lead to a "yes" or "no" answer. One could easily assume Genie was frightened when found since she had no socialization skills whatsoever. Instead, the researcher should ask questions like:
"When you first found Genie, what was her disposition?"
"When you removed Genie from her home, how did she react to the sunlight and outdoors"?
"When you gave Genie a cookie in the ambulance, how did she react?"
3. Make Recommendations and Form Conclusions
What did the study prove? After gathering all of the data, what conclusions can be made?
Once the researcher has compiled all of the research, it is time to formulate the data and form a thesis. A thesis is a statement that will tell the reader what to expect from the case study. It is a single sentence that usually is within the first paragraph of the report. The thesis must make a claim that can be disputed by others.
The thesis differs from the hypothesis in that the thesis is the statement that is proven true with the case study. The hypothesis is the question or idea that the researcher had going into the study. It is possible the hypothesis and thesis are the same. However, it is also possible that once all the research has been completed, the thesis changes from the initial hypothesis.
4. Write The Report
Writing the report is the final step, but it includes several steps. A case study is a research study that requires a cover page, references, and all of the acquired data and information compiled in a readable and cohesive report.
While a case study might use scientific facts and information, a case study should not read as a scientific research journal or report. It should be easy to read and understand, and should follow the narrative determined in the first step.
Remember, the case study must analyze a case or situation in a clear and concise way, but should also be readable by people not familiar with scientific methods. The study should have four main sections, the introduction, the background of the study and why it was developed, the presentation of findings, and the conclusion.
The introduction should set the stage for the case study, and state the thesis for the report. The intro must clearly articulate what the study's intention is, as well as how you plan on explaining and answering the thesis. Again, remember that a case study is not a formal scientific research report that will only be read by scientists. The case study must be able to be read and understood by the layperson, and should read almost as a story, with a clear narrative.
The background should detail what information brought the researcher to pose his hypothesis. It should clearly explain the subject or subjects, as well as their background information. And lastly, the background must give the reader a full understanding of the issue at hand, and what process will be taken with the study. Photos and videos are always helpful when applicable.
The presentation of findings should clearly explain how the topic was researched, and summarize what the results are. Data should be summarized as simply as possible so that it is understandable by people without a scientific background. The researcher should describe what was learned from the interviews, and how the results answered the questions asked in the introduction.
The final section of the study is the conclusion. The purpose of the study isn't necessarily to solve the problem, only to offer possible solutions. The final summary should be an end to the story. Remember, the case study is about asking and answering questions. The conclusion should answer the question posed by the researcher, but also leave the reader with questions of his own. The researcher wants the reader to think about the questions posed in the study, and be free to come to their own conclusions as well.
Understanding and Preventing Workplace Aggression
Welcome to this article on workplace aggression, a topic related to workplace violence. We will look at this topic with the goal of helping to prevent incidents of aggression and violence in the workplace. Let's get started.
How workplace aggression and workplace violence are related
We can consider that these terms describe the same situation. Workplace aggression - as with workplace violence - is a type of aggression and violence that we observe in a workplace.
It can include verbal violence as well as physical violence. It can be anything from insulting someone to punching them or even using a gun with the most horrifying consequences, as we sometimes see in news stories.
One example of workplace aggression - a most terrifying kind - comes from former employees as with the attacks at postal offices and by postal office employees.
Some definitions and concepts
Aggression we can define – as is common in behavioral and social sciences - in a way that is similar to how we define violence. It is any act a person takes to harm another. In can include any act in the workplace from verbal or emotional harm to physical harm and homicide. This can include coworkers, current employers, past employers, or anyone else in the workplace including customers, clients, and contractors.
In attempting to group aggressive behavior in the workplace, here are some possible groupings where you should be alert to all of them as they could trigger even more disturbing workplace violence and hurt you and your coworkers.
Expressing hostility including verbal abuse
Obstructionist activities include trying to stop a person from doing their job and the organization from accomplishing its goals
Overt actions including aggression and violence
Aggression in the workplace can be any combination of verbal and physical or direct and indirect or active and passive. Here are more possible types of workplace aggression.
Criminal - with this the intent is aggression or violence and the perpetrator does not know the victim and is not part of the organization - as with a bank or store robbery
Customer or client - with this the perpetrator is being served as a customer or client and aggression occurs during this time
Co workers - with this the perpetrator and victim work together in the same organization and can include a supervisor-worker relationship
Personal relationship - with this the perpetrator has a relationship with the employee but has no relationship with the organization and includes assault at work by a domestic partner
Aggression in the workplace can be covert or overt. Covert behavior can occur when the attacker participates in activities they want to disguise from the target so the target does not know about the aggressive intentions or behavior. With overt behavior the perpetrator does not disguise or hide their intentions and are open. Here are some examples.
Covert aggression includes actions that are verbal, passive, and indirect
Overt aggression includes actions that are physical, active, and direct
In the workplace you should be aware of each. Covert aggression could be a warning sign of future overt aggression. Each kind of aggression can cause harm.
Covert behavior in the workplace can reflect workplace aggression. A perpetrator could take a covert action because they evaluate the danger of committing an aggressive act. The aggressor could want to take action but have a low risk of danger to themselves. Factors concerning cover aggression to consider include:
Because people work together for a prolonged period of time victims could have a chance to retaliate so this discourages overt aggression
An aggressor could feat punishment from the group with an overt expression of violence so the aggressor might prefer a covert action
Predicting workplace aggression
We should look now at what predictors there are for workplace aggression or violence. These can occur at the individual or group level. At the individual level are factors such as gender, drug and alcohol use, and age. At the group level are factors such as surveillance, supervision, organizational culture, changes such as job elimination and downsizing, and specific stress due to a job. We can look at these items to predict and minimize workplace aggression and violence if we take proper action.
Some organizations can encourage workplace violence especially if no program or policy exists to actively and proactively minimize workplace aggression and violence.
Do people feel they are treated fairly and with respect on the job? That is a major factor in negative feels on the job. This can trigger physical and psychological aggression. The victim can be management. Perceived injustice in the workplace can be the motivation.
Interested in learning more? Why not take an online class in Workplace Violence?
Another trigger could be the perception that rules at an organization are not fair. This can also trigger violence or aggression against management. If a group feels the rules are fair and the treatment of workers is respectful, the incidents of workplace aggression and violence are less than a negative perception of these factors.
Job security and termination can trigger extreme forms of workplace aggression and violence. We see accounts of a person going back to a place of employment and killing people. This can come after the person was let go from the company. We saw this during periods of economic hardship such as in 2008 during the Great Recession. When there is a slow down in business organizations can increase profits by downsizing. The results can be an increase in workplace aggression and violence. A perception of impending termination and job insecurity can be predictors of workplace violence and aggression.
Supervision and surveillance at the workplace are factors related to workplace aggression and violence against managers. The more monitoring and the greater the number of methods used to do employee surveillance, the greater the amount of workplace violence and aggression. When there is aggression against a supervisor, this can be tied to the control over performance in the workplace. We see this with teenagers and adults.
Changes in the the workplace can trigger workplace aggression and violence. Certain changes can trigger stress and anxiety. Here are items that can lead to higher levels of violence and aggression.
Pay cuts
Changes in management
Pay freezes
Increased monitoring of computer activity
Increases in diversity
Increases in use of part time workers
Here are more factors that are predictors of aggression and violence.
Certain jobs can be predictors of workplace violence and aggression. This can include handling cash and other valuables and guns.
Length of time spent on the job is another predictor. The more time someone spends at work, the more likely they are to report violence and aggression. Long hours can cause frustration and fatigue that can lead to aggression and violence. The more hours you spend at work the greater your chance also of being a victim.
Gender can be a predictor. Males are more likely to be involved in aggression against manager. Males are also more likely to be involved in aggression in the presence of other males.
Age can be a predictor also. If you are aged 40 or older you are less likely to be involved in workplace aggression and violence. This is compared to younger employees.
Alcohol consumption can also be a predictor. The more alcohol you consume the more likely are you to commit an act of workplace aggression or violence.
Cyber activity, cyber harassment, and aggression
Factors to consider with cyber aggression include:
An obscene or hateful email or text message that is frightening or threatening
An email or text message that has offensive content such as racist or sexist material
This kind of workplace harassment can come from those outside of the workplace in addition to those within the workplace. It can also come in the form of spam. This kind of harassment has spread throughout workplaces. It appears to be growing and can be harmful as a trigger to aggression and violence.
If an employee feels threatened, offended, or upset about problems in the workplace, this can cause the employee to resort to cyber aggression. They retaliate through emails and text messages. Some call this flaming. It can also extend to social media such as Facebook and Twitter as well as comments on blogs. People can express hostility to a group or an individual.
Instant messaging can contribute to the problem of cyberbullying. It is hard for a manager to control these platforms. Employees can have private conversations through instant messaging. It can lead to aggressive communication. It can be easier for some to communicate aggression this way than in person. With instant messaging you see the person is available real time.
Email is a tool often used for cyber aggression. It is prevalent in the workplace. Someone who is upset can vent through email. They can send email to a large group at once. Some advice on how to avoid being aggressive in email is to not send email when you are upset. You should also not use profanity.
Social networking is another way to express aggression and anger. It can be considered cyber bullying. You can be aggressive in a public way and in an open forum. You can express yourself to a large audience without seeing them face to face. This can include Facebook and Twitter as well as comments sections of blogs.
Consequences of aggression and violence in the workplace
We have looked at many behaviors that are related to workplace aggression and violence. The consequences of this kind of behavior are wide ranging. They can result in physical harm to employees and customers and harm a business and its reputation. The result can also be job performance and the well being and health of employees. Let's look at some of the factors that impact the consequences of aggression and violence in the workplace.
Your place in the organization will impact how severely you are reprimanded due to workplace aggression. A supervisor is reprimanded most. This is followed by a co worker and then a vendor, client, customer, or other outsider.
Employees suffer in many ways from workplace aggression. Here are some of the impacts.
Well being suffers for those who are targets of workplace aggression or violence.
Victims suffer from health problems
Symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder can be evident after an incident of workplace aggression or violence
Anxiety and depression can result after workplace aggression
For hospital workers pain and other disorders are evident after workplace aggression
Here are some additional factors that show a negative impact after an incident of workplace aggression or violence.
Teams perform more poorly after an incident. Team effectiveness can be hurt.
Job satisfaction can be hurt. Victims especially can suffer from lower job satisfaction. If you see yourself as a target of workplace aggression or violence your overall job satisfaction can be impacted negatively. If you perceive abuse from management this can also have a negative impact on job satisfaction.
Data shows that gender can play in role in reactions to workplace aggression and violence. Each gender shows lower well being after an incident in the workplace. Males tend to report lower well being. Males tend to report more of a negative impact on cognitive, physical, and social problems. Females non sexual aggression has a strong impact on their job satisfaction. This is when compared to sexual aggression. Non sexual aggress also hurt job satisfaction more for females than males.
A look at prevention
Let's look now at programs that attempt to prevent and reduce instances of workplace aggression and violence. We will look at training, personnel selection, and organizational factors.
Concerning personnel selection, programs stress that it is important to screen potential employees. You can test to find out who could likely in the future behave aggressively and violently in the workplace. This is a proactive approach. If a person is predisposed to be aggressive and violent, you can consider this before you hire them.
Concerning organizational factors, a group that has a clear policy concerning workplace aggression and violence can find less incidents. If an employee considers that their group would punish workplace aggress, the employee is less likely to act out aggressively and violently. An organization can find that policies and procedures that are anti-aggression and anti-violence can help.
Concerning training, this is a critical part of a prevention program. This training should include both employees and management. The training should cover how to deal with aggression and violence in the workplace. Training should also stress that management takes seriously any threat or act of aggression or violence. Employees should be encouraged to report incidents. Management should support this reporting.
Let's note now that organizational support can greatly impact workplace aggression and violence. Organizations can support individuals if they are victims or feel they could use help with their aggression. Organizations can also provide employees with information about where they can get help.
A quick review
In this article we looked more closely at issues of aggression and violence in the workplace with the goal of using this information to prevent workplace violence and aggression. We hope you found the information of value.
How to Avoid Workplace Violence with a Readiness and Response Overview
Welcome to this article on a readiness and response overview to prevent workplace violence. The information in this article could help you prevent such violence or survive it if it happens so let's get started.
Introduction
Let's begin by reminding ourselves that workplace violence is a complex issue. It is receiving more and more attention from the media, public, law enforcement, and mental health professionals. We are looking at a range of activities that include those that are in the workplace involving:
Violence of any kind
Threats of violence
Damage to property
Inducing a sense of fear
Harassment and intimidation
Bullying and stalking
Domestic violence
Homicide
We have seen mass shootings at a workplace throughout the years so public awareness is growing. Data also shows that non fatal workplace violence is more prevalent than once reported.
What we can do about prevention
Groups around the United States and world have developed programs to minimize and prevent workplace violence. These programs can help minimize threats and neutralize them. We have no way to predict workplace violence but data shows that certain actions can reduce incidents.
Data shows that typically workplace violence happens not at random but due to planned actions.
Typically, there are warning signs that someone is planning an act of workplace violence. If we learn about these indicators and implement a plan of action you can neutralize a potentially violent situation. You can put into place a program of prevention of workplace violence.
Here are some of the behaviors that can be disturbing and a sign that someone could possibly be planning workplace violence. Note if a:
coworker's actions change – see how it changes
coworker appears sad, depressed, or aggressive
coworker threatens those in the office or shows menacing and erratic behavior
coworker refers to weaponry or uses verbal abuse
coworker cannot handle criticism
If someone is hypersensitive, jokes about violence, and makes offensive comments, these could be warning signs. If a downturn in productivity also happens and the worker is often absent or late, this could show additional signs. Poor relations with other workers and management could also show a potential for violence. None of these signs points directly and absolutely to workplace violence, but you should not ignore them.
We can also see that problems in someone's personal life can be brought into the workplace.
These problems could include:
Divorce
Relationship problems
Emotional abuse at home
Physical abuse at home
Separation
These are some of the signs that a person is experiencing problems in their personal life.
Disruptive calls and emails
Poor concentration
Anxiety
Unexplained bruises and injuries
Frequent tardiness and absence
Unplanned personal time
Disturbing visits from a former or current partner
Interested in learning more? Why not take an online class in Workplace Violence?
Be careful when you deal with someone who shows these symptoms. In some cases, an organization can use the help of a consultant or expert to help.
What intervention is possible
When you develop a strategy to minimize workplace violence you should consider both action points and flash points. Here are factors to consider.
Action points occur when you realize that a worker could be planning to commit an act of workplace violence. You take action to prevent this.
Action points give you a chance to intervene before danger becomes reality.
If you establish action points as early as can be, this can prevent behavior that you cannot predict and that could turn toward violence.
When you identify an action point you can then intervene. Here are some of the ways you can intervene.
1. Talk with the person. See if everything is ok in their life.
2. Let people vent. Let them talk about life situations. This can release tension.
3. Use this approach carefully.
4. Report about disturbing behavior to supervisors
5. Report about disturbing behavior to human resources and security departments.
6. Report about disturbing behavior to an employee assistance program or ombudsman.
Some organizations have a way to communicate concern via text message or email, a drop box, and tip line. Ethics hotlines are another option. You can maintain anonymity this way. This will work for someone who is not able to approach someone directly.
We should also point out that one approach does not fit all cases. Here are situations that could use a different approach in each case.
Perpetrator has a motive of a robbery or other kind of crime. Perpetrator is not related to the organization or victims.
Perpetrator is a client, contractor, patient, student, or has a relationship with the organization.
Perpetrator wants the victim to be a coworker, supervisor, or manager and is a former or current employee
Perpetrator has a relationship with an employee and is not an employee and domestic violence could be a factor
What is a flash point? That is when the violence occurs in the workplace. It is too late to take preventive measure. After a flash point we learn that coworkers had concern about the perpetrator and did not report about this. Here are some factors to consider.
Experts advise groups – say something if you see something.
Employees do not want to undermine coworkers.
Employees may say something when it is too late
Awareness will help intervention be effective. Training will cause awareness to grow. This way employees can report on disturbing behavior. Prevention and action could help and are a good approach to preventing workplace violence. If you are aware and act accordingly the workplace can become a safer place and workplace violence will be be stopped or minimized.
Surviving an incident
We just covered strategies for prevention and intervention of workplace violence. Let's look now at a related topic. Let's look at how planning and preparation for such an incident can help a group. In addition, let's look at the ways that know how to respond when an incident occurs can also help. Planning and preparation for response can help with survival of an incidents. It can help to be, for example, specific about an incidence of active shooting and an instance of hostage taking. Let's see how.
Taking on a survivor way of thinking can help. With this way of thinking, you realize law enforcement may not be there to help you. You could be on your own and responsible for your own survival. You must be ready physically and mentally for the worst. This could help you survive an act of workplace violence.
For an active shooting incident, if you have a survival mentality and approach, you should be aware, prepared, and have practiced. This will help you survive a workplace shooting incident. With awareness you understand that workplace violence can hurt anyone. It can be any industry and at any level of an organization. You can recognize possible disturbing behavior be it subtle like profanity or more obvious like seeing a gun.
If you are trained you can be startled and anxious then you recall what you are to do, prepare for it, and act. If you are not trained you are likely to be startled then feel panic and disbelief, denial, and helplessness. Training can make the difference in surviving.
Preparation is also a component of a survival mentality. This means:
1. Employees think about their own security and safety.
2. They look at their work environment to ask what if.
3. Employees think about what to do if as shooter is in their organization's lobby or hall.
4. They plan and become prepared for and incidence of workplace violence.
Rehearsing is another part of the survival mentality. This is where you:
1. Imagine walking through the workplace looking at hiding places and exits.
2. This makes a worker able to the stress of a workplace violence.
3. This can reduce response time for a worker during an incidence of workplace violence.
4. This gives a worker confidence and able to survive and incident of workplace violence.
Rehearsing for an incidence of workplace violence is similar to rehearsing with a fire drill. During the real thing your chance of survival improves if you have rehearsed.
How to respond
If you are trained you respond differently to an incidence of workplace violence than someone who is not trained. If trained you experience fear, then recall and act. If untrained you experience fear, panic, disbelief, and helplessness. Training greatly improves the chances of surviving an incidence of workplace violence.
If you are in an incident with someone shooting, here is a way to respond.
1. Figure out what is happening and accept it.
2. Assess the situation.
3. Look at options for survival.
4. Consider evacuating the building.
5. Consider hiding.
6. Continuously reassess options.
If someone realizes that escape is the best option, they should leave a soon as possible, not wait for the ok from someone, and not wait to collect anything from their office. Once they are safe they should:
1. Contact emergency personnel
2. Realize that no one may have called authorities
3. Relay to an emergency operator a description of the perpetrator, location of the perpetrator, types of weapons, and number of people in the building.
If a worker feels escape is not a good option here are other actions the worker can take.
1. Find a hiding place as this can save your life
2. Lock yourself in an office space, barricade the door, and remain quiet.
3. Disperse so it is harder to find everyone.
4. Stay in communication with other workers and help the injured as possible.
If you cannot hide or escape from danger as a way to survive, these may not be options. If the shooter confronts a worker:
1. Be prepared to know what you must do.
2. Attempt to neutralize the shooter to survive.
This is what someone with a survival mentality will have to do. You accept what you have to do. You commit to do what you must to live.
A look at two dangerous situations
To survive an incident of workplace violence you must remain realistic and practical. For example, if it is a incidence of a shooting or taking of hostages – knowing the difference of how to react will help you survive. Here are some differences in the description of the perpetrator.
Hostage takers may have a weapon. Their motivation could be to get money, change of some sort, or some other goal. Instead, their motivation could be in reaction to losing a job or a relationship and what they want may not be clear. They are contained in the same space as the hostages. Hurting a hostage may not help the hostage taker.
Shooters have a weapon they use to shoot in the workplace. They are not contained in the way that a hostage taker is contained. Targets could be specific or random.
If you are held captive, consider that law enforcement may not arrive in time to help you. With this in mind you should:
1. Have patience as you will need to survive
2. Remain calm
3. Follow directions
4. Do not argue
5. Do not irritate the hostage taker
6. Do not be too assertive or too passive
If law enforcement cannot negotiate effectively with the hostage taker, they may shoot. If this happens someone who is held captive should:
1. Help law enforcement
2. Identify the perpetrator if that will help
3. Raise your arms if asked to do so by law enforcement
4. Spread fingers if law enforcement asks you to and drop to the floor
5. Do whatever law enforcement asks you to show you have no weapons
6. Relay any information asked by law enforcement
7. Indicate how many shooters there are and what is the location of the shooting
8. Identify the weapons used
Parting thoughts
Workplace violence is a complex problem that can exist in virtually any workplace location. We see the media cover incidents so the public is aware of many high profile events. Others go unreported. You should know that to help cope with workplace violence you should learn about disturbing behaviors and become more aware of what might happen and how you should react.
Know, for example, your reaction to a hostage taking event at your workplace could be different than your reaction to a shooting incident. If you are aware and prepared and take the right action you could prevent an event and survive it if it happens.
A quick review
We have looked in this article at issues involving readiness and response to preventing workplace violence and how to deal with it if it happens. We hope the information in this article could help you prevent such violence or survive it if unfortunately it happens.
Preventing Workplace Violence: Defense of Self and Others
Welcome to this article on defense of self and others in the context of workplace violence. We will look in this article at reaction, recovery, and training. Let's get started.
Introduction
It is unfortunate that we must in our society deal with the possibility of workplace violence. Here are some general guidelines that can help you defend yourself, others, and your organization.
1. Screen your applicants to help avoid workplace violence. Ask applicants for references that are personal and professional. Ask yourself is an applicant appears stable. Always have a face to face interview to look at the temperament of an individual
2. Write a policy concerning workplace violence. Make the policy clear and tough. Make this document separate from others so the message is clear about the seriousness of workplace violence.
3. Put together a team to address crisis management. This group can help before an incident occurs and if needed afterward. You should include security personnel, legal staff, and HR. Senior management should also be included.
4. Provide training to supervisors and receptionists. These people may be among the first to notice potential problems and who might be at risk.
5. Communicate clearly about your policy. Make sure all employees know about the policy. Reinforce the message with email, newsletters, and face to face meetings. Employees should know you have a zero tolerance policy. Employees should know when to report concern and when to call 911.
Protect yourself and others by knowing warning signs
Some people can show warning signs that can lead you to think they could become violent at the workplace. Here are some of the signs.
1. an interest in weapons
2. substance abuse
3. stress
4. poor personal hygiene
5. changes in personality
6. a history of violence
7. isolation
8. poor productivity
Protect yourself and others after an event
If there is a workplace violence event, you could find these symptoms at your organization.
Loss of productivity
Increase in employee turnover
Absenteeism grows
Business is interrupted
Insurance premium rates go up
Workers' compensation claims increase
Here are examples of what you can do to protect yourself and others after an event.
1. Get out of harm's way.
2. Be sure you evacuate an area that is harmful. All employees and visitors should do this first.
3. Inform law enforcement of the incident.
4. Provide emergency medical care if needed.
5. Keep everyone away from the site until police allow reentry.
6. Work with HR to schedule and attend debriefing sessions.
During a debriefing session here is what you can expect.
1. Education
2. Communication
Interested in learning more? Why not take an online class in Workplace Violence?
3. Preparation
Concerning education, you will get information about the incident. This can decrease rumors and help you focus on what happened. Concerning communication, you will get a chance to vent your feelings concerning the traumatic experience that happened. This can help reduce anxiety. Concerning preparation, you can understand better what can happen next. You may need to talk with police during an investigation so now you can prepare for that.
To help individuals cope with workplace violence, the organization should have in place a way to work with media to get out the message. A spokesperson for the organization should handle this.
More about survival, readiness, and response
When we think of survival, we should consider several factors.
Be aware of the possibility of workplace violence
Know prevention and intervention strategies
Plan in advance
Prepare for incidents
Know how to respond
These factors can help you stay safe and survive an incidence of workplace violence. You may have to take responsibility for your own survival until law enforcement arrives. A mind set for survival can help.
Here is what can go into such a mind set.
1. Be aware
2. Be prepared
3. Rehearse and plan
When we say be aware we mean you should know that workplace violence can happen to anyone. It can be at any level of the organization and any type of organization. You should also be aware that a problem can occur when there are verbal outbursts and of course if you hear gun shots.
We we say be prepared we mean you take responsibility for your own survival. You should imagine what you would do to protect yourself if a shooter comes into the vicinity of where you work. This mind set will help you survive and plan.
When we say rehearse and plan we mean that you imagine yourself evacuating the scene. You look at where the exit routes are. You are aware of safe areas. This means you will be better prepared if there is an incident of workplace violence.
More about responses
If you look at how those who receiving training respond in comparison to those who do not receiving training – you will find some insights of note.
Those who do and do not receive training initially respond the same during the first part of an incident – with fear.
With no training an individual panics, but with training a person is vigilant and controlled.
With training a person recalls what they should do. Then, they act. An untrained person can remain helpless.
If you receive training you can better survive. This is what you can do.
1. Figure out the what is happening during an incident. If this is a shooting incident it may sound different than you expect, given accounts you may have seen in movies or television.
2. Consider your options. This will help you survive.
3. Options can include fleeing to safety or hiding.
4. Continuously look at options as time goes on.
With training your chances of survival improve. You will look to escape. You will leave as soon as possible. Once you are safe you can contact emergency personnel. Consider that in a panic no one has called. Or consider the phone lines could be jammed. Once you connect with an emergency operator, provide this information.
Description of incident
Location of persons involved
Types of weapons
Number of weapon
Estimate of how many people are in the building
If escape is not possible, here are other options to consider.
Find a hiding place. This can mean your survival
Lock yourself into an office
Remain silent
Disperse into various locations
Barricade doors
Communicate with others as possible
If escape is not possible survival can come if you can neutralize the shooter. Training on how to do this can help. Be prepared for what you have to do.
Surviving a shooting or hostage incident
Both a shooting and a hostage situation are dangerous. Know that with a shooting the shooter either has specific targets in mind or is shooting randomly. With a hostage situation, understand that those who take hostages have a gun but may not use it. With a shooting the shooter is not always restricted. With a hostage situation, the area may be restricted by law enforcement.
A hostage taker can have various motives. One motive could be that they want something such as money and change and once achieved they will flee. Another motive could be to act out emotions due to a loss such as a relationship or job. This hostage taker can act in a way that is more reckless and senseless. They may not have a goal such as money or change. A hostage taker may not want to harm the captive. They may want to keep the captive alive to achieve their goal. Here are more factors to consider.
Patience is important as it may take law enforcement staff time to resolve the situation.
Remain calm and follow directions.
Do not argue or irritate the hostage taker.
Do not be too passive. Do not be too aggressive.
Negotiation is typically the preferred method of handling a hostage situation. If you are a captive and sense police want instead to be active shooters do all you can to help the police. They may want to neutralize the situation and ask you to put your arms in the air to show you have no weapon. They may also ask you to drop to the floor to show you have no intention of harming anyone. Do as told. Once the situation is stabilized tell police all you know about how many shooters were involved, the weapons used, and the location of all shooters.
What you should know about defending yourself and others
We should review that to help you and others survive an incident of workplace violence it helps to learn about it, recognize when behavior is of concern, and know that prevention can come when you are aware and take the proper action. We know that violence in the workplace is a problem that is complex and prevalent. If we are involved in an incident it can help, for example, to recognize how you could react to an active shooter versus a hostage taker. You can then better determine what to do. That way your chance of survival gets better.
Data indicates that law enforcement may not arrive in time to help you. You may have to defend yourself and others to survive an incident. It helps if you are aware, prepared, and have rehearsed. You should realize your understanding, approach, and preparation are what count.
More about defense of self and others
Some organizations bring in a consultant on self defense. Management can consider that workplace violence is increasing, and a group cannot afford an incident at their workplace. Consultants help with this concern by providing seminars and workshops addressing how individuals and groups can protect themselves.
Consultants can determine approaches that work best for the group whether it is in health care, customer service, sales, real estate, or shift work – to name a few. Consultants can help make the group more profitable and make employees more loyal to their employer as the employer expresses concern for the safety of their workers. Management feels it cannot afford to have an employee be a victim of workplace violence.
Bringing in a consultant helps a group effectively training all employees in a way that is systematic and practical. Topics covered can include awareness, psychology, how to defuse violent situations, legal aspects, and tools of self protection. Employees benefit from the consultant approach as they:
Learn a life long skill – similar to learning about first aid
Learn how to help prevent an incident of workplace violence
Learn how better to survive an incident
Learn safety and self defense skills
Become more confident about how to protect themselves
Feel safe and less stressed
How self defense training can help
With self defense training an individual and group can stop workplace violence before it starts and help with survival if it does happen. Additional benefits of self defense training include how it helps with creativity and problem solving. The training also helps enhance teamwork and a positive attitude toward the employer. It also helps with morale and employee discipline. Productivity can improve after the training and employees have less apathy and complacency. Here is a list of additional benefits.
Employees gain peace of mind
Employees feel happier on the job
Employees feel more confident
Leadership skills grow as does self esteem
Problem solving skills increase
With training the work force of an organization develops verbal self defense skills as their interpersonal communication skills improve. Workers can better remain calm under pressure as their concentration and focus improves. The training can also be part of business functions as a team building exercise with employees learning practical skills that benefit themselves and their organization.
With such specific training conducted by experts, employees can feel safer at work. They could feel less stress, become more confident, and become more productive. This can also mean less time off work and less turnover of staff. An organization that bring in such training by experts can address concerns over the growth of workplace violence and the costs an event of workplace violence can bring. You help prevent personnel and financial loss in the future.
A quick review
In this article we looked at defense of self and others in the context of workplace violence. We addressed topics of training, reaction, and recovery. We hope you found the information in this article of value.
Types of Case Studies
Under the more generalized category of case study exist several subdivisions, each of which is custom selected for use depending upon the goals and/or objectives of the investigator. These types of case study include the following:
Illustrative Case Studies
These are primarily descriptive studies. They typically utilize one or two instances of an event to show what a situation is like. Illustrative case studies serve primarily to make the unfamiliar familiar and to give readers a common language about the topic in question.
Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies
These are condensed case studies performed before implementing a large scale investigation. Their basic function is to help identify questions and select types of measurement prior to the main investigation. The primary pitfall of this type of study is that initial findings may seem convincing enough to be released prematurely as conclusions.
Cumulative Case Studies
These serve to aggregate information from several sites collected at different times. The idea behind these studies is the collection of past studies will allow for greater generalization without additional cost or time being expended on new, possibly repetitive studies.
Critical Instance Case Studies
These examine one or more sites for either the purpose of examining a situation of unique interest with little to no interest in generalizability, or to call into question or challenge a highly generalized or universal assertion. This method is useful for answering cause and effect questions.
Data Collection
There are six types of data collected in case studies:
Documents.
Archival records.
Interviews.
Direct observation.
Participant observation.
Artifacts.
In the field of composition research, these six sources might be:
A writer's drafts.
School records of student writers.
Transcripts of interviews with a writer.
Transcripts of conversations between writers (and protocols).
Videotapes and notes from direct field observations.
Hard copies of a writer's work on computer.
Depending on whether researchers have chosen to use a single or multi-modal approach for the case study, they may choose to collect data from one or any combination of these sources.
Protocols, that is, transcriptions of participants talking aloud about what they are doing as they do it, have been particularly common in composition case studies. For example, in Emig's (1971) study, the students were asked, in four different sessions, to give oral autobiographies of their writing experiences and to compose aloud three themes in the presence of a tape recorder and the investigator.
In some studies, only one method of data collection is conducted. For example, the Flower and Hayes (1981) report on the cognitive process theory of writing depends on protocol analysis alone. However, using multiple sources of evidence to increase the reliability and validity of the data can be advantageous.
Case studies are likely to be much more convincing and accurate if they are based on several different sources of information, following a corroborating mode. This conclusion is echoed among many composition researchers. For example, in her study of predrafting processes of high and low-apprehensive writers, Cynthia Selfe (1985) argues that because "methods of indirect observation provide only an incomplete reflection of the complex set of processes involved in composing, a combination of several such methods should be used to gather data in any one study." Thus, in this study, Selfe collected her data from protocols, observations of students role playing their writing processes, audio taped interviews with the students, and videotaped observations of the students in the process of composing.
It can be said then, that cross checking data from multiple sources can help provide a multidimensional profile of composing activities in a particular setting. Sharan Merriam (1985) suggests "checking, verifying, testing, probing, and confirming collected data as you go, arguing that this process will follow in a funnel-like design resulting in less data gathering in later phases of the study along with a congruent increase in analysis checking, verifying, and confirming."
It is important to note that in case studies, as in any qualitative descriptive research, while researchers begin their studies with one or several questions driving the inquiry (which influence the key factors the researcher will be looking for during data collection), a researcher may find new key factors emerging during data collection. These might be unexpected patterns or linguistic features which become evident only during the course of the research. While not bearing directly on the researcher's guiding questions, these variables may become the basis for new questions asked at the end of the report, thus linking to the possibility of further research.
Data Analysis
As the information is collected, researchers strive to make sense of their data. Generally, researchers interpret their data in one of two ways: holistically or through coding. Holistic analysis does not attempt to break the evidence into parts, but rather to draw conclusions based on the text as a whole. Flower and Hayes (1981), for example, make inferences from entire sections of their students' protocols, rather than searching through the transcripts to look for isolatable characteristics.
However, composition researchers commonly interpret their data by coding, that is by systematically searching data to identify and/or categorize specific observable actions or characteristics. These observable actions then become the key variables in the study. Sharan Merriam (1988) suggests seven analytic frameworks for the organization and presentation of data:
The role of participants.
The network analysis of formal and informal exchanges among groups.
Historical.
Thematical.
Resources.
Ritual and symbolism.
Critical incidents that challenge or reinforce fundamental beliefs, practices, and values.
There are two purposes of these frameworks: to look for patterns among the data and to look for patterns that give meaning to the case study.
As stated above, while most researchers begin their case studies expecting to look for particular observable characteristics, it is not unusual for key variables to emerge during data collection. Typical variables coded in case studies of writers include pauses writers make in the production of a text, the use of specific linguistic units (such as nouns or verbs), and writing processes (planning, drafting, revising, and editing). In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, researchers coded the participant's texts for use of connectives, discourse demonstratives, average sentence length, off-register words, use of the first person pronoun, and the ratio of definite articles to indefinite articles.
Since coding is inherently subjective, more than one coder is usually employed. In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, three rhetoricians were employed to code the participant's texts for off-register phrases. The researchers established the agreement among the coders before concluding that the participant used fewer off-register words as the graduate program progressed.
Case Studies
Designing a Case Study
After considering the different sub categories of case study and identifying a theoretical perspective, researchers can begin to design their study. Research design is the string of logic that ultimately links the data to be collected and the conclusions to be drawn to the initial questions of the study. Typically, research designs deal with at least four problems:
What questions to study
What data are relevant
What data to collect
How to analyze that data
In other words, a research design is basically a blueprint for getting from the beginning to the end of a study. The beginning is an initial set of questions to be answered, and the end is some set of conclusions about those questions.
Because case studies are conducted on topics as diverse as Anglo-Saxon Literature (Thrane 1986) and AIDS prevention (Van Vugt 1994), it is virtually impossible to outline any strict or universal method or design for conducting the case study. However, Robert K. Yin (1993) does offer five basic components of a research design:
A study's questions.
A study's propositions (if any).
A study's units of analysis.
The logic linking of the data to the propositions.
The criteria for interpreting the findings.
In addition to these five basic components, Yin also stresses the importance of clearly articulating one's theoretical perspective, determining the goals of the study, selecting one's subject(s), selecting the appropriate method(s) of collecting data, and providing some considerations to the composition of the final report
Composing the Case Study Report
In the many forms it can take, "a case study is generically a story; it presents the concrete narrative detail of actual, or at least realistic events, it has a plot, exposition, characters, and sometimes even dialogue" (Boehrer 1990). Generally, case study reports are extensively descriptive, with "the most problematic issue often referred to as being the determination of the right combination of description and analysis" (1990). Typically, authors address each step of the research process, and attempt to give the reader as much context as possible for the decisions made in the research design and for the conclusions drawn.
This contextualization usually includes a detailed explanation of the researchers' theoretical positions, of how those theories drove the inquiry or led to the guiding research questions, of the participants' backgrounds, of the processes of data collection, of the training and limitations of the coders, along with a strong attempt to make connections between the data and the conclusions evident.
Although the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study does not, case study reports often include the reactions of the participants to the study or to the researchers' conclusions. Because case studies tend to be exploratory, most end with implications for further study. Here researchers may identify significant variables that emerged during the research and suggest studies related to these, or the authors may suggest further general questions that their case study generated.
For example, Emig's (1971) study concludes with a section dedicated solely to the topic of implications for further research, in which she suggests several means by which this particular study could have been improved, as well as questions and ideas raised by this study which other researchers might like to address, such as: is there a correlation between a certain personality and a certain composing process profile (e.g. is there a positive correlation between ego strength and persistence in revising)?
Also included in Emig's study is a section dedicated to implications for teaching, which outlines the pedagogical ramifications of the study's findings for teachers currently involved in high school writing programs.
Sharan Merriam (1985) also offers several suggestions for alternative presentations of data:
Prepare specialized condensations for appropriate groups.
Replace narrative sections with a series of answers to open-ended questions.
Present "skimmer's" summaries at beginning of each section.
Incorporate headlines that encapsulate information from text.
Prepare analytic summaries with supporting data appendixes.
Present data in colorful and/or unique graphic representations.